Education, today, is concerned with many issues. Some of them regard the curriculum; what should and should not be included in it, others whether the beliefs of various ideologies and philosophies should be applied to educational process or not while, others try to decide if the state or the parents should have a main role in the students’ education. And there are the advocates and defenders of these issues who try to convince that their educational ideologies should be applied to the educational processes and, those who oppose to them. But there is an issue for which it can be said that no one can oppose to. This issue refers to the teachers’ competency. Because, apart from those issues mentioned above and some others, the persons who influence and affect the educational process are mainly the teachers and hence, they should be competent in order to achieve the expected results and outcomes that concern the effective education of children. But what is meant by saying a teacher needs to be competent? The current essay will try to give an answer to this question and accordingly, it will define and describe four basic characteristics of the competent teacher.
To begin with, a basic characteristic of a competent teacher constitutes the ability to develop and promote consciousness to students. If a teacher possesses this characteristic, consequently he/she possesses some others too. What is meant by this, is that a teacher who is competent since, he/she develops and promotes consciousness to students he/she accordingly, has also the ability to promote and develop dialogue, critical thinking, and communication to students. Because, a basic presupposition for consciousness to be developed constitutes the development of dialogue and critical thinking, as well as the development of communication. A competent teacher is one who abandons the educational “chain” of depositing, receiving, memorizing and repeating knowledge on the students’ behalf. On the contrary, a competent teacher promotes consciousness to students and helps them become conscious beings who adopt a concept of the consciousness upon the world (Cahn, 1997). Additionally, a competent teacher encourages students to reflect on social reality and empowers them to transform the existing conditions that shape their lives (Gutek, 2004). Moreover, a competent teacher is one who engages students in dialogue and manages through dialogue to achieve genuine learning. Because when students and the teacher are engaged in a shared critical dialogue, they can mutually create and construct knowledge instead of passively transmitting it since, they can share their knowledge and experiences, reflect upon them and finally make a critical evaluation of them regarding the way they, themselves, have obtained that knowledge and those experiences (Gutek, 2004).
“Paulo [Freire] claims it is dialogue that helps to move us from our egocentric and sociocentric positions. In dialogue we learn something about worldviews and values different from our own. We are moved out of our own frame of reference into a different one or, perhaps, a larger one of which ours is now just a part” (Noddings, 2007, p.102).In accordance with this, it is necessary to have in mind that teachers, too, can learn a lot from their students since, they do not know everything. Hence, it is important to be engaged in such kind of dialogues that examine students’ life experiences and especially those of the students who are or were marginalized, to discuss and find out the feelings and emotions they have or had when they felt rejection or suffered from such marginalization (Gutek, 2004). Moreover, it can be declared that through such kind of dialogues no one teaches another but rather, teachers and students teach each other, and they become responsible as a group and as a team that is based on dialogue and that accordingly, helps all of them to grow (Cahn, 1997). And as Freire noted, it is by this way, by engaging teachers and students in mutual learning, that true consciousness can be constructed and therefore, true and genuine education can be achieved (Gutek, 2004).
Going further, a competent teacher develops and promotes consciousness to students not only through their engagement in dialogues but also through critical thinking and communication. The concepts of dialogue, critical thinking, and the concept of communication are concepts related to each other and which together presuppose the development of consciousness to students. First of all, the competent teacher, as Freire supported, must come to know reality critically, needs to have a critical attitude towards reality and hence, needs to approach his/her teaching with a realistic awareness of those conditions and factors that restrain the potentialities of human freedom (Gutek, 2004). But critical thinking concerns the students, also. The competent teacher is not one who thinks for his/her students or imposes his/her thought on them but rather, is one who stimulates students’ critical thinking and makes use of the dialogue in order to help students become critical thinkers and co-investigators and hence, to abandon the role of the docile passive listeners (Cahn, 1997). Because teachers, apart from engaging students in heuristic and algorithmic processes they should also engage them into the logic of good reasons, of judgment and therefore, into the logic of critical thinking (Lipman, 2007).
Apart from these, a teacher can be characterized as competent only if he/she abandons and does not follow the notion of him/her being the one who possesses control over his/her students. Instead, he/she is competent when he/she makes reconciliation with the students and hence, resolves the teacher-student contradiction. By this way, the competent teacher transforms his/her and the students’ role, makes them both simultaneously teachers and students, and makes it possible for them both, to become the subjects of the educational process (Gutek, 2004). Moreover, when a competent teacher manages to resolve the teacher-student contradiction, he/she is therefore, a competent teacher who also allows, offers and promotes freedom to the students to practice it since, through the resolution of this contradiction and through the use of dialogue, new terms arise, and these are the terms of teacher-student with students-teachers, that substitute the existing terms of teacher-of-the students and students-of- the teacher (Cahn, 1997).
Except for these, a competent teacher is one who conducts education morally and thereby, tries to induce a moral sense in the students (Cahn, 1997). And in order to achieve this, a competent teacher should therefore, teach students the importance of moral values such as honesty, self-discipline, responsibility, fairness, respect, integrity, and courage.
A competent teacher is one who promotes cultural transmission and perpetuates civilizations by passing on as inheritage essential basic skills and subjects from one generation to the next (Gutek, 2004). Because it is necessary and crucial for the students to know about the culture and the world they live in, about cultures that existed before them while, it is also necessary for them to know about important and historical persons who made great discoveries or contributed in a major degree to the shaping of society. Additionally, it is necessary for teachers to present to the students an effective selection of the world they live in and, to work in cooperation with them in order to help them attain a competence in their own world of experience, in the world they live in (Noddings, 2007).
Summing up, a competent teacher is one who develops and promotes consciousness to students through the use of dialogue, critical thinking and through communication; resolves the teacher-student contradiction; develops a moral sense in students; and promotes cultural transmission. It can be said, that the first two characteristics and their presuppositions, constitute a theory of education and particularly, follow and adhere to the features and beliefs of a Liberation pedagogy as well as to the features and beliefs of a problem-posing education while, the last two characteristics adhere to the beliefs of the theory of Essentialism. These characteristics, apart from others, are basic ones and a teacher should attain them if he/she is going to be characterized as a competent one. Therefore, a teacher who is competent enough to act as an educator who follows and adheres to these characteristics, can be a successful one and can achieve the best education for students. Accordingly, schools, the curriculum and the students who are cooperating and working with competent teachers who attain and adhere to the characteristics that were defined and described previously, can improve the educational process and they can deal more effectively with all the educational issues relating to and impacting educational practice.
References
Cahn, S. (1997) Classic and contemporary readings in the philosophy of education.
New York: McGraw Hill.
Gutek. G.L. (2004) Philosophical and ideological voices in education. Boston:
Pearson Education.
Lipman, M. (2007) Education for Critical Thinking .In: Curren, R. (Ed.). Philosophy
of Education: An anthology. (pp.427-434). Malden, MA: Blackwell
Publishing.
Noddings, N. (2007). Philosophy of education (2nd ed). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Noddings, N. (2007) The One-Caring as Teacher .In: Curren, R. (Ed.). Philosophy of
Education: An anthology. (pp.372-376). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Monday, April 25, 2011
The kind of cultural identity that public schools should promote
If we take a look at and make a search of the educational issues involving and impacting educational practice hundreds of years ago and those impacting the present, we will find a major common issue: What kind of cultural identity should public schools promote. This issue arose in the past, exists at the present including a larger number of related ideologies and philosophies and perhaps, it will still exist in the future. But looking at the present, and seeing the radical innovations and technological advances made in all sectors such as, medicine, industry, and business, it is a following consequent that this kind of changes and others will influence the sector of education too. Therefore, schools, and particularly public schools, must follow a reformed and renewed kind of education that need to provide their students with. Such kind of education adheres to and is based on five main features: (1) social change and intelligence; (2) freedom; (3) collaborative learning; (4) promotion of cultural continuity; and (5) traditional moral values. Next, follows a reflection on the kind of cultural identity that follows and adheres to these features and, that public schools should promote.
To begin with, public schools must promote a cultural identity that is open to social change. If this is achieved then, many positive effects can arise and improve students’ education. Cultural identity reflects culture and since, culture is influenced and based on occurred social changes, it is then a following consequent that public schools should be open to social change. Because, apart from their academic functions as academic institutions that provide the learning of basic skills and subjects, they should apply another function, more fluid, flexible and responsive to social change and problems and therefore, to become multifunctional and multipurpose institutions that create and provide a climate of multiculturalism (Gutek, 2004). This can be achieved, as Gutek supported, if public schools substitute racial segregation to racial integration, develop educational programs concerning major current social issues such as safe sex, drug and alcohol abuse, AIDS and also, if they provide for vocational preparation, health care, counselling and other social needs. The effective application of such kind of functions can produce great social, economic, and educational benefits to students and therefore, can strengthen their cultural identity.
Relative to social change is human and social intelligence. And this is so, because human and social intelligence enables individuals not only to adjust to social change but also to direct it in order to achieve as many social and economic benefits they can (Gutek, 2004). Therefore, it is the school’s goal through the education it provides to students, to develop, exercise and promote such kind of intelligence. And particularly, as Gutek noted, it must be included in the teachers’ role to encourage the development of social intelligence to students and this, can be achieved if they apply to their teaching methods open discussions and permission to share, question and doubt ideas.
Going further, a feature of the kind of cultural identity that public schools should definitely adhere to and promote, is freedom. Freedom of thought, freedom of expression and, freedom from religious controls. Because no cultural identity that an individual “owns” can be called even an identity if the individual has no freedom to do anything. The components involved in the educational process, meaning schools, teachers, students and the curriculum, should be places and sources of freedom of thought, of expression and of action. Particularly, teachers and students must be free to teach and learn respectively, without having their freedom limited by arbitrary controls while, the curriculum of public schools must be open to new ideas, subjects and methods of inquiry that will enable students to have the freedom to pose questions, challenge, doubt, make judgments and decisions, developing by this way important and necessary critical thinking skills (Gutek, 2004). Additionally, the students’ freedom to making choices in the future can be assured if they are taught mutual respect and, as Gutmann noted, students must be provided with those opportunities that will enable them to choose among good lives in the future (Cahn, 1997).
But freedom includes another issue relative to religion, which if applied to the educational process it can prevent the kind of freedom mentioned above. Since, different religions exist in today’s world and since, at schools attend children believing in various religions it is therefore, better that public schools be separated from church and hence, from religious dogmas. Because religious dogmas can restrain freedom of inquiry, it is necessary that public schools be free from religious controls and this can be achieved if religious instruction, observances, prayers and other religious issues are excluded from the educational processes in public schools (Gutek, 2004).
A necessary component of the kind of cultural identity that public schools should promote is collaborative or as Dewey called it associative learning, through which students can become responsible, a characteristic necessary for living in a democratic society. What is meant by collaborative learning is that students can cooperate and work together, share their own needs, interests, aspirations and knowledge in order to jointly solve a problem or face an existing situation. By this way, they not only give solution to the particular problem but they also learn how to work as responsible individuals who learn by doing, and as members of a particular group while, this group membership of them is flexible and can change based on their interests (Gutek, 2004).
Public schools should promote a kind of cultural identity that follows and is based on, as Bentham defined it, the principle of utility. This principle assumes that curriculum and instruction can be reformed by the incorporation of new areas of knowledge, of new subjects and skills and, the removal of obsolete ones, making by this way schools more relevant and efficient, producing better effects to students as well as to teachers and, making the curriculum and methods of instruction more relevant to socioeconomic changes that reflect technological innovations, advances and scientific discoveries (Gutek, 2004). In addition to these, as Gutek stated, basic skills such as reading, writing, and calculating can remain as they are but can be taught with innovative methods while, specific subjects such as, history, science, language, literature and mathematics can be reformed and revised by incorporating new developments and insights.
The above reflections on the kind of cultural identity that public schools should promote, presuppose some changes to be done from those holding the reins of the educational process, meaning schools, teachers, students and the curriculum. But there are also some already existing features that must be part of the cultural identity that public schools should promote. Because as with every sector, whether that is industry, medicine or business, similarly with education, you cannot produce changes or improvements without the existence of some underpinnings. You must build and make changes and improvements on those existing underpinnings.
Particularly, through the educational process, public schools can achieve various changes as long as those changes are linked to and reinforce the cultural heritage. It is unconceivable for students not to know and not to be informed about what existed before them, not to know about their cultural heritage. Hence, if public schools want to perform their function better, they must transmit this heritage (traditions, skills, knowledge and, values) to students and make sure that they promote cultural continuity through the teaching of specific subjects such as, language, history, literature, and the arts (Gutek, 2004). But students must know not only the traditions of their own subculture but also the traditions of other subcultures in order that they are given, by this way, the opportunity to understand, appreciate and, love what is good in those traditions (Appiah, 2007). This constitutes also a good way for providing students with a multicultural education.
In addition to these, the kind of cultural identity that public schools should promote must emphasize traditional moral values such as, honesty, fairness, self-discipline, personal responsibility, love of country, liberty and equality. Apart from basic skills and knowledge such as, reading, writing and history, students as Jefferson supported, must be educated also in their rights, interests, and duties as men and citizens and therefore, the goal of education should be to improve not only one’s faculties but also one’s morals (Gutek, 2004).
Democracy’s survival depends upon our transmitting to each new generation the political vision of liberty and equality that unites us as Americans…Such values are neither revealed truths nor natural habits. There is no evidence that we are born with them. Devotion to human dignity and freedom, to equal rights, to social and economic justice, to the rule of law, to civility and truth, to tolerance of diversity, to mutual assistance, to personal and civic responsibility, to self-restraint and self-respect-all these must be taught and learned (Galston, 1998, p.472).
Furthermore, if schools want to teach morality, and help students develop good moral and civic character and therefore, transmit to them a moral foundation, they must expose students to such kind of character and, this can be best achieved if the main instruments of the educational process embody sound convictions. “As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written. “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself, and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong”” (Gutek, 2004, p.211). Additionally, if character education is going to be provided to students, it must be depended on the identification and description of exemplars (Noddings, 2006). Therefore, students must have some real persons whose behavior must “watch” in order that they identify, consider and hence, attain by themselves a particular moral value. And the best real persons that can be “offered” as exemplars to students are their teachers, principals and, parents.
In conclusion, the kind of cultural identity that public schools should promote and, that was defined and reflected previously, it can be said is mostly a liberal one, though it adheres some features of Conservatism. Public schools must make reforms but preserve some procedures, processes, features and, underpinnings of existing educational practice. Therefore, they must build on those underpinnings, promote, and provide by this way the best, most suitable and appropriate kind of cultural identity to their students that will accordingly, provide them with the best education as possible.
References
Appiah, K.A (2007) Culture, Subculture, Multiculturalism: Educational Options. In:
Curren, R. (Ed.). Philosophy of Education: An anthology. (pp.255-265). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Cahn, S. (1997) Classic and contemporary readings in the philosophy of education.
New York: McGraw Hill.
Galston, W. (1998) Civic Education in the Liberal State. In: Rorty, A. (Ed.).
Philosophers on education: New historical perspectives (pp.470-480). New York: Routledge.
Gutek. G.L. (2004) Philosophical and ideological voices in education. Boston:
Pearson Education.
Noddings, N. (2006). Philosophy of education (2nd ed). Boulder, CO: Westview
Press.
To begin with, public schools must promote a cultural identity that is open to social change. If this is achieved then, many positive effects can arise and improve students’ education. Cultural identity reflects culture and since, culture is influenced and based on occurred social changes, it is then a following consequent that public schools should be open to social change. Because, apart from their academic functions as academic institutions that provide the learning of basic skills and subjects, they should apply another function, more fluid, flexible and responsive to social change and problems and therefore, to become multifunctional and multipurpose institutions that create and provide a climate of multiculturalism (Gutek, 2004). This can be achieved, as Gutek supported, if public schools substitute racial segregation to racial integration, develop educational programs concerning major current social issues such as safe sex, drug and alcohol abuse, AIDS and also, if they provide for vocational preparation, health care, counselling and other social needs. The effective application of such kind of functions can produce great social, economic, and educational benefits to students and therefore, can strengthen their cultural identity.
Relative to social change is human and social intelligence. And this is so, because human and social intelligence enables individuals not only to adjust to social change but also to direct it in order to achieve as many social and economic benefits they can (Gutek, 2004). Therefore, it is the school’s goal through the education it provides to students, to develop, exercise and promote such kind of intelligence. And particularly, as Gutek noted, it must be included in the teachers’ role to encourage the development of social intelligence to students and this, can be achieved if they apply to their teaching methods open discussions and permission to share, question and doubt ideas.
Going further, a feature of the kind of cultural identity that public schools should definitely adhere to and promote, is freedom. Freedom of thought, freedom of expression and, freedom from religious controls. Because no cultural identity that an individual “owns” can be called even an identity if the individual has no freedom to do anything. The components involved in the educational process, meaning schools, teachers, students and the curriculum, should be places and sources of freedom of thought, of expression and of action. Particularly, teachers and students must be free to teach and learn respectively, without having their freedom limited by arbitrary controls while, the curriculum of public schools must be open to new ideas, subjects and methods of inquiry that will enable students to have the freedom to pose questions, challenge, doubt, make judgments and decisions, developing by this way important and necessary critical thinking skills (Gutek, 2004). Additionally, the students’ freedom to making choices in the future can be assured if they are taught mutual respect and, as Gutmann noted, students must be provided with those opportunities that will enable them to choose among good lives in the future (Cahn, 1997).
But freedom includes another issue relative to religion, which if applied to the educational process it can prevent the kind of freedom mentioned above. Since, different religions exist in today’s world and since, at schools attend children believing in various religions it is therefore, better that public schools be separated from church and hence, from religious dogmas. Because religious dogmas can restrain freedom of inquiry, it is necessary that public schools be free from religious controls and this can be achieved if religious instruction, observances, prayers and other religious issues are excluded from the educational processes in public schools (Gutek, 2004).
A necessary component of the kind of cultural identity that public schools should promote is collaborative or as Dewey called it associative learning, through which students can become responsible, a characteristic necessary for living in a democratic society. What is meant by collaborative learning is that students can cooperate and work together, share their own needs, interests, aspirations and knowledge in order to jointly solve a problem or face an existing situation. By this way, they not only give solution to the particular problem but they also learn how to work as responsible individuals who learn by doing, and as members of a particular group while, this group membership of them is flexible and can change based on their interests (Gutek, 2004).
Public schools should promote a kind of cultural identity that follows and is based on, as Bentham defined it, the principle of utility. This principle assumes that curriculum and instruction can be reformed by the incorporation of new areas of knowledge, of new subjects and skills and, the removal of obsolete ones, making by this way schools more relevant and efficient, producing better effects to students as well as to teachers and, making the curriculum and methods of instruction more relevant to socioeconomic changes that reflect technological innovations, advances and scientific discoveries (Gutek, 2004). In addition to these, as Gutek stated, basic skills such as reading, writing, and calculating can remain as they are but can be taught with innovative methods while, specific subjects such as, history, science, language, literature and mathematics can be reformed and revised by incorporating new developments and insights.
The above reflections on the kind of cultural identity that public schools should promote, presuppose some changes to be done from those holding the reins of the educational process, meaning schools, teachers, students and the curriculum. But there are also some already existing features that must be part of the cultural identity that public schools should promote. Because as with every sector, whether that is industry, medicine or business, similarly with education, you cannot produce changes or improvements without the existence of some underpinnings. You must build and make changes and improvements on those existing underpinnings.
Particularly, through the educational process, public schools can achieve various changes as long as those changes are linked to and reinforce the cultural heritage. It is unconceivable for students not to know and not to be informed about what existed before them, not to know about their cultural heritage. Hence, if public schools want to perform their function better, they must transmit this heritage (traditions, skills, knowledge and, values) to students and make sure that they promote cultural continuity through the teaching of specific subjects such as, language, history, literature, and the arts (Gutek, 2004). But students must know not only the traditions of their own subculture but also the traditions of other subcultures in order that they are given, by this way, the opportunity to understand, appreciate and, love what is good in those traditions (Appiah, 2007). This constitutes also a good way for providing students with a multicultural education.
In addition to these, the kind of cultural identity that public schools should promote must emphasize traditional moral values such as, honesty, fairness, self-discipline, personal responsibility, love of country, liberty and equality. Apart from basic skills and knowledge such as, reading, writing and history, students as Jefferson supported, must be educated also in their rights, interests, and duties as men and citizens and therefore, the goal of education should be to improve not only one’s faculties but also one’s morals (Gutek, 2004).
Democracy’s survival depends upon our transmitting to each new generation the political vision of liberty and equality that unites us as Americans…Such values are neither revealed truths nor natural habits. There is no evidence that we are born with them. Devotion to human dignity and freedom, to equal rights, to social and economic justice, to the rule of law, to civility and truth, to tolerance of diversity, to mutual assistance, to personal and civic responsibility, to self-restraint and self-respect-all these must be taught and learned (Galston, 1998, p.472).
Furthermore, if schools want to teach morality, and help students develop good moral and civic character and therefore, transmit to them a moral foundation, they must expose students to such kind of character and, this can be best achieved if the main instruments of the educational process embody sound convictions. “As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written. “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself, and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong”” (Gutek, 2004, p.211). Additionally, if character education is going to be provided to students, it must be depended on the identification and description of exemplars (Noddings, 2006). Therefore, students must have some real persons whose behavior must “watch” in order that they identify, consider and hence, attain by themselves a particular moral value. And the best real persons that can be “offered” as exemplars to students are their teachers, principals and, parents.
In conclusion, the kind of cultural identity that public schools should promote and, that was defined and reflected previously, it can be said is mostly a liberal one, though it adheres some features of Conservatism. Public schools must make reforms but preserve some procedures, processes, features and, underpinnings of existing educational practice. Therefore, they must build on those underpinnings, promote, and provide by this way the best, most suitable and appropriate kind of cultural identity to their students that will accordingly, provide them with the best education as possible.
References
Appiah, K.A (2007) Culture, Subculture, Multiculturalism: Educational Options. In:
Curren, R. (Ed.). Philosophy of Education: An anthology. (pp.255-265). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Cahn, S. (1997) Classic and contemporary readings in the philosophy of education.
New York: McGraw Hill.
Galston, W. (1998) Civic Education in the Liberal State. In: Rorty, A. (Ed.).
Philosophers on education: New historical perspectives (pp.470-480). New York: Routledge.
Gutek. G.L. (2004) Philosophical and ideological voices in education. Boston:
Pearson Education.
Noddings, N. (2006). Philosophy of education (2nd ed). Boulder, CO: Westview
Press.
My own educational philosophy statement-What is real, true, good, beautiful, and logical
Education is not a mere piling up of more and more pieces of information. Rather, it is a process of deciding for ourselves what we believe. It is a process of autonomously deciding to understand what is and what is not real, true, good, beautiful, and logical. When a person realizes and understands the meaning of these terms, he or she will be at the right path that can lead him or her if not to the attainment of perfection to the ultimate development of his or her spirit or mind. The task of answering to the question of what is real, true, good, beautiful, and logical is not an easy one. But when an answer is been given many other issues and answers can be derived from this, that can give an explanation and an answer to other important life questions.
A deeper understanding of what is real can be better made if it is analyzed and answered in relation to the question of what is true. Real is a spiritual source from which all things originate and, due to the power of which all things exist (Gutek, 2004). What is real is universal, unchanging and eternally true and, is rooted in the universe’s underlying spirituality and intellectuality while, it is not based on time, place, environment, or situation (Gutek, 2004). Accordingly, as Plato noted, truth cannot be found in the world of matter because such a world is not permanent rather, it is changing (Ozmon and Craver, 2007)
Reality is an extension of a highly abstract universal idea, principle or concept, such as Plato’s form of the Good, Hegel’s Absolute or Emerson’s Macrocosm while, the truth that is present within us must be brought to consciousness, to our spiritual and mental surface through a process of knowing (Gutek, 2004).
In respect of the educational area, students must try and search inside themselves in order to find out what is true or i.e. the truth that is present to them. And here is where the teachers’ role lays its importance. Teachers must be the source from which students can derive motives in order to seek for truth. Teachers must provide students with an environment clear of false images created by consumerism and disinformation that characterize the image of society (Gutek, 2004). But in order for the teachers’ goal to be successfully achieved, students must at first be awakened from their home background about what is true. Parents must prepare their children before entering the school world and be “submitted” to the teachers’ hands, to take the first steps toward truth. Therefore, the true student having the teacher as a guide will be in a position ready to begin a spiritual and intellectual journey in order to find out not only what is real and true but also what is good and beautiful (Gutek, 2004).
As previously mentioned, since what is real and true is spiritual and nonmaterial it consequently follows, that true education must relate to ideas instead to matter. Based only on this assumption it will be possible through the contemplation of ideas for God to be reached, since God is a pure idea. And as Augustine pointed out, the search for truth is at the same time a search for God and respectively, a true education leads a person to God (Ozmon and Craver, 2007). Moreover, pure ideas consist the major components leading a person to the true knowledge. Particularly, true knowledge can be acquired through the recall of the ideas that are latently present in the human mind (Gutek, 2004). Apart from the recall of ideas, true knowledge can be achieved through reasoning and specifically, through the surpass of reason through faith. And as Augustine noted, it is only through faith that a person can achieve the acquisition of true ideas and true knowledge (Ozmon and Craver, 2007).
What is true must undoubtedly be characterized by lasting moral values. The search for truth requires personal discipline and a steady and loyal character (Ozmon and Craver, 2007). One can suppress discussion about moral values, but one cannot suppress the development of values and the formation of morals (Carter, 1984). The formation of morals it is of the basic components which lead to the self-discovery of truth. Hence, moral education goes on all over the school building-in the classrooms, in assemblies, in the gym. It strengthens the teacher-student relationship. Therefore, the school cannot but be a force for growth and for good in the moral life of the student and consequently, moral education is an inevitable role of the schools while for the teachers themselves, it comes with the territory (Carter, 1984). In addition to these, character development must also aim at motivating students to improve their thinking abilities in the deepest possible way. Students must direct their thinking toward more universal concepts than those employed in the day-to-day living matters, reaching by this way the ideal goal of wisdom and truth and therefore, the foremost goal of a good education (Ozmon and Craver, 2007).
From the above assumptions and the answer given to what is real and true, it can be said that the values of reality and truth are universal, permanent, unchanging and timeless. Consequently, they are not relative to particular cultures at given times or arise from personal and subjective choices as the Pragmatists’ and Existentialists’ supporters state respectively.
Going further, an also important issue involved with the particular educational philosophy that is currently being pointed out, is the one that answers the question of what is good. Plato, for example, defended the thesis that good is all those existing things that are imperfect copies of eternal, unchanging, immaterial archetypes, forms, or ideas (Gutek, 2004). What is good is evidently something complete. When humans manage to fulfil all the necessary presuppositions which relate to a situation they consequently, manage to bring the particular “situation” to a complete end and therefore, manage to attain good. Specifically, only when the end of something is completed, the chief good is achieved since, there are evidently more than one ends, some of which are not completed and from which humans make a choice of (Cahn, 1997). In accordance with these, a separation must be made between actions and making, because while making has an end other than itself, action cannot since for good action itself is its end (Cahn, 1997). But as Plato noted when the essential form of Good is perceived there comes beauty and specifically, in the visible world it gives birth to light and its master while in the intellectual world spreads out in the ultimate values of truth and reason (Gutek, 2004).
When humans act and do the good they can be characterized as good. Accordingly, when humans attain the excellences of the two parts of the soul, the one which has a rational principle in itself and, the other not having a rational principle in itself but is able to obey such a principle, they do the good and consequently, they can be called good (Cahn, 1997).
In respect of the education process, the good is when students are involved in a procedure of thinking about and realizing not only the purposes of life but also the ways through which they can become active participants in such kind of purposes (Ozmon and Craver, 2007). By this way, as Royce pointed out, students can become a part of the universal design and hence, can achieve the highest good since they are in a position of successfully developing a sense of loyalty to moral principles as well as to causes (Ozmon and Craver, 2007).
What is good consequently, relates to the good life. Because no one who has attained the good can act oppose it to it and therefore, not living a good life. When humans manage to realize what kinds of thing consist generally the good life then it can be said that they have practical wisdom, a “component” necessary for humans which, places them in a position to be able to deliberate well enough about what is good and expedient for them (Cahn, 1997). In addition to this, as Kant stated, humans are motivated and led to think and seek out the good only if they are been given the appropriate education, an education whose components, apart from others, include the great value of discipline (Ozmon and Craver, 2007).
The realization and attainment of the good is a consequent of the adherence to a good system of nurture, of the education’s creation of good natures which while receiving the help and guidance of a good education, grow even better than they once were (Cahn, 1997).
Going further, if we are in a position to characterize something as real, true, and good the consequently, we can not do otherwise but conclude that this something is also beautiful. It is impossible for something to be real, true, and good and not at the same time be beautiful. It can be added though that beautiful includes all those virtues of the soul which lead a person to act with wisdom, justice and honesty. The soul of the person is characterized by those habits that are healthy, beautiful and good and which constitute the significant value of virtue (Cahn, 1997).
What is real, true, good and consequently, beautiful is now and always has been real, true, good and beautiful and is not relative to changing times, situations and circumstances; rather, it is eternal, universal and unchanging (Gutek, 2004). The values of reality, truth, goodness, and beauty do not depend on anything but rather they are the same for all humans, regarding their colour, gender, ethnicity or social position. And this is an assumption contrasting to the one made by Dewey J., who supported the idea that values such as goodness, truth, and beauty are relative to particular circumstances, to people living at particular time and place, a notion he based on the idea that human experiences arise in concrete and particular situations (Gutek, 2004).
An also important issue is the one referring to logic. What is logical is apparently something that is specific which correlates with that which is general. A situation or something particular as a “unit” must said to obtain the trait of logic if only when compared to the whole in general is consistent with it. Hence, there is a strong and absolute relationship between the whole and the part which, in order to be called as a logical one must have its parts consistent with the whole (Gutek, 2004).
In respect of the educational field, logic constitutes a significant “component” and trait that needs to be flourished in students’ mind. Students must be in a position to think and act logically if they are going to obtain the ultimate values of reality, goodness, and beauty and if they are therefore going to be led to the self-discovery of truth and hence, achieve excellence and perfection. It is by this way that logic needs to be worked out in the education of children if we want to develop major, holistic ideas and concepts in the students’ mind (Gutek, 2004). Logic does not depend on the students’ choice as the supporters of Existentialism suppose, who state that logic is subject to choice and that students have the right to choose to be logical or illogical or be deductive, drawing their own conclusions (Gutek, 2004).
In conclusion, the above answer given to the question of what is real, true, good, beautiful, and logical describes an educational philosophy which, in a major degree applies and adheres the traits and points of view of the Idealistic educational philosophy. Education is about reality, truth, goodness, beauty, and logic which, in general are values being the same for everyone in everyplace on Earth (Gutek, 2004). And according to Plato since, truth is eternal and, perfect people in respect of the purposes of education, must aim at the acquisition of philosophical wisdom and the conception of true ideas (Ozmon and Craver, 2007). This comes to an opposition to Aristotle’s doctrine which supports that moral virtue, i.e. goodness of character is formed by habit and that one becomes good by doing good and additionally, wisdom is acquired by teaching and requires sophisticated intelligence (Cahn, 1997).
The terms real, true, good, beautiful, and logical are terms connected and related to each other, one leading to the other. The realization of these terms and therefore, the acquisition of reality, truth, goodness, beauty, and logic constitutes the right and appropriate path that can lead a person to the self-discovery of truth, to the attainment if not of perfection and excellence, to the major degree of achieving as much as a person can.
References
Cahn, S. (1997) Classic and contemporary readings in the philosophy of education. New York: McGraw Hill 0070096198
Carter, R.E. (1937) Dimensions of Moral Education. University of Toronto Press. Toronto Buffalo London
Gutek. G.L. (2004) Philosophical and ideological voices in education. Boston: Pearson Education 0205360181
Ozmon, H.A., & Craver, S.M. (2007). Philosophical foundations of education (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
A deeper understanding of what is real can be better made if it is analyzed and answered in relation to the question of what is true. Real is a spiritual source from which all things originate and, due to the power of which all things exist (Gutek, 2004). What is real is universal, unchanging and eternally true and, is rooted in the universe’s underlying spirituality and intellectuality while, it is not based on time, place, environment, or situation (Gutek, 2004). Accordingly, as Plato noted, truth cannot be found in the world of matter because such a world is not permanent rather, it is changing (Ozmon and Craver, 2007)
Reality is an extension of a highly abstract universal idea, principle or concept, such as Plato’s form of the Good, Hegel’s Absolute or Emerson’s Macrocosm while, the truth that is present within us must be brought to consciousness, to our spiritual and mental surface through a process of knowing (Gutek, 2004).
In respect of the educational area, students must try and search inside themselves in order to find out what is true or i.e. the truth that is present to them. And here is where the teachers’ role lays its importance. Teachers must be the source from which students can derive motives in order to seek for truth. Teachers must provide students with an environment clear of false images created by consumerism and disinformation that characterize the image of society (Gutek, 2004). But in order for the teachers’ goal to be successfully achieved, students must at first be awakened from their home background about what is true. Parents must prepare their children before entering the school world and be “submitted” to the teachers’ hands, to take the first steps toward truth. Therefore, the true student having the teacher as a guide will be in a position ready to begin a spiritual and intellectual journey in order to find out not only what is real and true but also what is good and beautiful (Gutek, 2004).
As previously mentioned, since what is real and true is spiritual and nonmaterial it consequently follows, that true education must relate to ideas instead to matter. Based only on this assumption it will be possible through the contemplation of ideas for God to be reached, since God is a pure idea. And as Augustine pointed out, the search for truth is at the same time a search for God and respectively, a true education leads a person to God (Ozmon and Craver, 2007). Moreover, pure ideas consist the major components leading a person to the true knowledge. Particularly, true knowledge can be acquired through the recall of the ideas that are latently present in the human mind (Gutek, 2004). Apart from the recall of ideas, true knowledge can be achieved through reasoning and specifically, through the surpass of reason through faith. And as Augustine noted, it is only through faith that a person can achieve the acquisition of true ideas and true knowledge (Ozmon and Craver, 2007).
What is true must undoubtedly be characterized by lasting moral values. The search for truth requires personal discipline and a steady and loyal character (Ozmon and Craver, 2007). One can suppress discussion about moral values, but one cannot suppress the development of values and the formation of morals (Carter, 1984). The formation of morals it is of the basic components which lead to the self-discovery of truth. Hence, moral education goes on all over the school building-in the classrooms, in assemblies, in the gym. It strengthens the teacher-student relationship. Therefore, the school cannot but be a force for growth and for good in the moral life of the student and consequently, moral education is an inevitable role of the schools while for the teachers themselves, it comes with the territory (Carter, 1984). In addition to these, character development must also aim at motivating students to improve their thinking abilities in the deepest possible way. Students must direct their thinking toward more universal concepts than those employed in the day-to-day living matters, reaching by this way the ideal goal of wisdom and truth and therefore, the foremost goal of a good education (Ozmon and Craver, 2007).
From the above assumptions and the answer given to what is real and true, it can be said that the values of reality and truth are universal, permanent, unchanging and timeless. Consequently, they are not relative to particular cultures at given times or arise from personal and subjective choices as the Pragmatists’ and Existentialists’ supporters state respectively.
Going further, an also important issue involved with the particular educational philosophy that is currently being pointed out, is the one that answers the question of what is good. Plato, for example, defended the thesis that good is all those existing things that are imperfect copies of eternal, unchanging, immaterial archetypes, forms, or ideas (Gutek, 2004). What is good is evidently something complete. When humans manage to fulfil all the necessary presuppositions which relate to a situation they consequently, manage to bring the particular “situation” to a complete end and therefore, manage to attain good. Specifically, only when the end of something is completed, the chief good is achieved since, there are evidently more than one ends, some of which are not completed and from which humans make a choice of (Cahn, 1997). In accordance with these, a separation must be made between actions and making, because while making has an end other than itself, action cannot since for good action itself is its end (Cahn, 1997). But as Plato noted when the essential form of Good is perceived there comes beauty and specifically, in the visible world it gives birth to light and its master while in the intellectual world spreads out in the ultimate values of truth and reason (Gutek, 2004).
When humans act and do the good they can be characterized as good. Accordingly, when humans attain the excellences of the two parts of the soul, the one which has a rational principle in itself and, the other not having a rational principle in itself but is able to obey such a principle, they do the good and consequently, they can be called good (Cahn, 1997).
In respect of the education process, the good is when students are involved in a procedure of thinking about and realizing not only the purposes of life but also the ways through which they can become active participants in such kind of purposes (Ozmon and Craver, 2007). By this way, as Royce pointed out, students can become a part of the universal design and hence, can achieve the highest good since they are in a position of successfully developing a sense of loyalty to moral principles as well as to causes (Ozmon and Craver, 2007).
What is good consequently, relates to the good life. Because no one who has attained the good can act oppose it to it and therefore, not living a good life. When humans manage to realize what kinds of thing consist generally the good life then it can be said that they have practical wisdom, a “component” necessary for humans which, places them in a position to be able to deliberate well enough about what is good and expedient for them (Cahn, 1997). In addition to this, as Kant stated, humans are motivated and led to think and seek out the good only if they are been given the appropriate education, an education whose components, apart from others, include the great value of discipline (Ozmon and Craver, 2007).
The realization and attainment of the good is a consequent of the adherence to a good system of nurture, of the education’s creation of good natures which while receiving the help and guidance of a good education, grow even better than they once were (Cahn, 1997).
Going further, if we are in a position to characterize something as real, true, and good the consequently, we can not do otherwise but conclude that this something is also beautiful. It is impossible for something to be real, true, and good and not at the same time be beautiful. It can be added though that beautiful includes all those virtues of the soul which lead a person to act with wisdom, justice and honesty. The soul of the person is characterized by those habits that are healthy, beautiful and good and which constitute the significant value of virtue (Cahn, 1997).
What is real, true, good and consequently, beautiful is now and always has been real, true, good and beautiful and is not relative to changing times, situations and circumstances; rather, it is eternal, universal and unchanging (Gutek, 2004). The values of reality, truth, goodness, and beauty do not depend on anything but rather they are the same for all humans, regarding their colour, gender, ethnicity or social position. And this is an assumption contrasting to the one made by Dewey J., who supported the idea that values such as goodness, truth, and beauty are relative to particular circumstances, to people living at particular time and place, a notion he based on the idea that human experiences arise in concrete and particular situations (Gutek, 2004).
An also important issue is the one referring to logic. What is logical is apparently something that is specific which correlates with that which is general. A situation or something particular as a “unit” must said to obtain the trait of logic if only when compared to the whole in general is consistent with it. Hence, there is a strong and absolute relationship between the whole and the part which, in order to be called as a logical one must have its parts consistent with the whole (Gutek, 2004).
In respect of the educational field, logic constitutes a significant “component” and trait that needs to be flourished in students’ mind. Students must be in a position to think and act logically if they are going to obtain the ultimate values of reality, goodness, and beauty and if they are therefore going to be led to the self-discovery of truth and hence, achieve excellence and perfection. It is by this way that logic needs to be worked out in the education of children if we want to develop major, holistic ideas and concepts in the students’ mind (Gutek, 2004). Logic does not depend on the students’ choice as the supporters of Existentialism suppose, who state that logic is subject to choice and that students have the right to choose to be logical or illogical or be deductive, drawing their own conclusions (Gutek, 2004).
In conclusion, the above answer given to the question of what is real, true, good, beautiful, and logical describes an educational philosophy which, in a major degree applies and adheres the traits and points of view of the Idealistic educational philosophy. Education is about reality, truth, goodness, beauty, and logic which, in general are values being the same for everyone in everyplace on Earth (Gutek, 2004). And according to Plato since, truth is eternal and, perfect people in respect of the purposes of education, must aim at the acquisition of philosophical wisdom and the conception of true ideas (Ozmon and Craver, 2007). This comes to an opposition to Aristotle’s doctrine which supports that moral virtue, i.e. goodness of character is formed by habit and that one becomes good by doing good and additionally, wisdom is acquired by teaching and requires sophisticated intelligence (Cahn, 1997).
The terms real, true, good, beautiful, and logical are terms connected and related to each other, one leading to the other. The realization of these terms and therefore, the acquisition of reality, truth, goodness, beauty, and logic constitutes the right and appropriate path that can lead a person to the self-discovery of truth, to the attainment if not of perfection and excellence, to the major degree of achieving as much as a person can.
References
Cahn, S. (1997) Classic and contemporary readings in the philosophy of education. New York: McGraw Hill 0070096198
Carter, R.E. (1937) Dimensions of Moral Education. University of Toronto Press. Toronto Buffalo London
Gutek. G.L. (2004) Philosophical and ideological voices in education. Boston: Pearson Education 0205360181
Ozmon, H.A., & Craver, S.M. (2007). Philosophical foundations of education (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Tuesday, March 1, 2011
Multimedia and Learning
Rapid changes in technology have made computers and multimedia an integral part of our personal and professional lives while also, in many schools, it is now commonplace to find students using multimedia computers as an integral part of the learning process (Sullivan, 2001). Computers are one of the basic instructional technologies used in education that have a variety of roles to play in the curriculum, ranging from tutors to student learning tools (Smaldino, Heinich, Molenda & Russel, 2008). Multimedia is the use of text, graphics, animation, pictures, video and sound to present information (Najjar, 1996). As Sullivan (2001) stated, multimedia simply means a variety of media together while on the computer, the media can be text, sound and still or moving pictures. Moreover, as Fenrich stated, “Multimedia is the exciting combination of computer hardware and software that allows you to integrate video, animation, audio, graphics, and text resources to develop effective presentations on an affordable desktop computer” (cemca.org, n.d, p.1). Multimedia instruction can simulate a real-life experience, such as decision-making on the job, thereby allowing the learner to progress through training by interacting with realistic situations (Sullivan, 2001).
The use of computers and multimedia in learning has both advantages and limitations. According to Smaldino et al. (2008), computers and multimedia provide the following main advantages: (a) individualization, since they allow students to control over the rate and sequence of their learning, giving them more control over the outcomes; (b) monitoring, since with computers, teachers can prepare individual lessons for all students and monitor their progress; (c) information management, since computers and multimedia can cover and manage all types of information such as text, graphics, audio, and video; (d) multisensory experiences, since they provide diverse learning experiences that can employ various instructional strategies; (e) learner participation, since computer and multimedia materials require students to engage in activities while they also help to maintain students’ attention; and (f) special needs, since they are effective with students with disabilities, at-risk students and students with diverse ethnic backgrounds.
Going further, multimedia use provides real-life situations that students face every day while they also allow students to learn by viewing, doing, or coaching and they also increase information retention (Hick, 1997). Moreover, multimedia allows students to control their learning pace. Specifically, multimedia instruction allows students to personally set the pace of learning compared to the traditional classroom instruction, and this is a more effective way to learn due to the fact that the student can move to new material when the student is ready (Najjar, 1996). In addition, students respond to information differently, and hence, teachers should use various formats and modes to teach the subject matter of a lesson (Zimmer, 2003). Furthermore, the fact that multimedia engage various learning modalities such as visual, auditory and kinaesthetic, appeals to various learner styles simultaneously (Necta.org, n.d). In general, “computers help children to be in control of their experience, to set their own pace, and to select the level of challenge with which they feel comfortable” (Wiki.answers.com, 2009, ¶11).
Apart from these, as supported by the cemca.org (n.d), with multimedia, learning can become more goal-oriented, more participatory and tailored to individual learning styles and can increase collaboration between teachers and students. Going further, computers can help teachers and students in maintaining information about their learning and in guiding instruction while also students can use the computer tools in order to gather information and to prepare materials that demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of that information (Smaldino et al. 2008). Moreover, the use of multimedia helps to better explain concepts and supports the learning experience with the use of senses other than just sight and this is something that also supports the dual coding theory that supports that learning is better when information is referentially processed through two channels (i.e. text and sound) than when information is processed through one channel and as a consequence, students can create more cognitive paths allowing quicker retrieval of information (Hick, 1997).
Another important advantage of the use of computers and multimedia in learning are the benefits that can provide to students with special needs. In particular, students with special needs can use alternative input and output devices in order to interact with computers and do things that they normally could not accomplish independently while they can also benefit from having access to a patient tutor that allows them to work at their own pace (Indianchild.com, n.d). In addition, as supported in Indianchild.com, what students with special needs achieve through the use of a computer enhances their self-esteem and provides them with a greater sense of control and engagement with the world.
On the other side of the coin, the use of computers and multimedia in learning has its limitations and disadvantages as well, some of which are next mentioned and discussed. According to Smaldino et al. (2008), the use of computers and multimedia in learning has the following main limitations: (a) copyright, since software and other digital information can be duplicated with ease and without permission; (b) high expectations, since students and teachers may have unrealistic expectations from computers and multimedia while also many view computers as magical and expect learning to happen with little or no effort; (c) complex, since more advanced programs may be difficult to use, especially for student production, because they require the ability to use complex skills; and (d) lack of structure, since students whose learning style requires more structure guidance may become frustrated while also, students may make poor decisions about how much information to explore. When multimedia and computers in general are used, there is no interaction between the teacher and the students and other students, and students are not able to clarify their doubts about a particular point and therefore, the use of computers is a sedentary activity that lacks the social aspect of learning and encourages passive learning (Yahoo Inc., 2009). Moreover, as Veermans and Tapola (2004) supported, the fact that students can control pace and delivery of information, which are general features of multimedia, seems to be beneficial only to high-ability students while lower-ability students are reported to have difficulties coping with the growing demand for student control.
Apart from these, “multimedia requires high-end computer systems. Sound, images, animation, and mostly video, constitute large amounts of data which slow down or may not even fit in a low-end computer” (cemca.org, n.d, p.3). In addition, teachers should be educating students about their legal and ethical responsibilities to respect copyrighted material (Provenzo, Brett & McCloskey, 2005). Undoubtedly, the use of computers and multimedia has advantages and limitations and disadvantages as well. Comparing the advantages with the limitations, it can be denoted that the advantages outweigh the limitations and disadvantages. Computers play an increasing role in our everyday lives, and children should be educated in their use in order to get prepared for their encounters with them in the workplace and elsewhere (Underwood, J. & Underwood, G., 1990). “As they master computers, children build positive attitudes toward technology that will pay dividends for the rest of their lives” (Indianchild.com, n.d, ¶14). With the use of computers and multimedia, children grow up computer literate and they will have that as a great advantage since computer literacy is becoming a huge and important qualification and hence, feeling comfortable with one will put them a step ahead (Wiki.answers.com, 2009). Computers can help achieve the important goals of education, promoting achievement in basic skills, growth in higher-level problem solving, positive attitudes toward learning and social development as well (Clements, 1985).
References
Cemca.org (n.d) Multimedia as an Educational Tool. Retrieved October 3, 2009, from http://www.cemca.org/EMHandbook/Section2.pdf
Clements, D.H. (1985) Computers in Early and Primary Education. New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, INC., Englewood Cliffs
Hick. S. (1997) Benefits of Interactive Multimedia Courseware. Retrieved October 3, 2009, from http://http-server.carleton.ca/~shick/mypage/benifit.html
Indianchild.com (n.d) Computers-A Blessing or Curse? Advantages of Computers. Retrieved October 1, 2009, from http://www.indianchild.com/computers_blessing_or_curse.htm
Najjar, L.J. (1996) Multimedia Information and Learning. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 5(2). Retrieved October 2, 2009, from http://www.medvet.umontreal.ca/techno/eta6785/articles/multimedia_and_learning.pdf
Necta.org (n.d) Advantages of Multimedia. Retrieved October 4, 2009, from http://www.nectac.org/~wbtdemo/session_3/pages3/S3_Page6.html
Provenzo, E. F., Brett, A., & McCloskey, G. N (2005) Computers, curriculum, and
cultural change. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Smaldino, S., Heinich, R., Molenda, M. & Russel, J. (2008) Instructional technology
and media for learning. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
Sullivan, R. (2001) Alternative Learning Methods: Computer-Assisted Learning. Retrieved October 1, 2009, from http://www.reproline.jhu.edu/english/6read/6issues/6jtn/v4/tn111lrngmthds.htm
Underwood, J.D.M. and Underwood, G. (1990) Computers and Learning. Helping
Children acquire thinking skills. United Kingdom: Basil Blackwell.
Veermans, M. & Tapola, A. (2004) Are Multimedia/Hypermedia programs Useful for Learning? Retrieved October 2, 2009, from http://www.xplora.org/ww/en/pub/insight/school_innovation/teaching_models/ernist_questions/multimedia_programs.htm
Wiki.answers.com (2009) What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of using Computers in Education? Retrieved October 3, 2009, from http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_advantages_and_disadvantages_of_using_computers_in_education
Yahoo Inc. (2009) Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer in Education. Retrieved October 1, 2009, from http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080130033246AAMc6aN
Zimmer, J.E. (2003) Teaching Effectively with Multimedia. Retrieved October 4, 2009, from http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=87
The use of computers and multimedia in learning has both advantages and limitations. According to Smaldino et al. (2008), computers and multimedia provide the following main advantages: (a) individualization, since they allow students to control over the rate and sequence of their learning, giving them more control over the outcomes; (b) monitoring, since with computers, teachers can prepare individual lessons for all students and monitor their progress; (c) information management, since computers and multimedia can cover and manage all types of information such as text, graphics, audio, and video; (d) multisensory experiences, since they provide diverse learning experiences that can employ various instructional strategies; (e) learner participation, since computer and multimedia materials require students to engage in activities while they also help to maintain students’ attention; and (f) special needs, since they are effective with students with disabilities, at-risk students and students with diverse ethnic backgrounds.
Going further, multimedia use provides real-life situations that students face every day while they also allow students to learn by viewing, doing, or coaching and they also increase information retention (Hick, 1997). Moreover, multimedia allows students to control their learning pace. Specifically, multimedia instruction allows students to personally set the pace of learning compared to the traditional classroom instruction, and this is a more effective way to learn due to the fact that the student can move to new material when the student is ready (Najjar, 1996). In addition, students respond to information differently, and hence, teachers should use various formats and modes to teach the subject matter of a lesson (Zimmer, 2003). Furthermore, the fact that multimedia engage various learning modalities such as visual, auditory and kinaesthetic, appeals to various learner styles simultaneously (Necta.org, n.d). In general, “computers help children to be in control of their experience, to set their own pace, and to select the level of challenge with which they feel comfortable” (Wiki.answers.com, 2009, ¶11).
Apart from these, as supported by the cemca.org (n.d), with multimedia, learning can become more goal-oriented, more participatory and tailored to individual learning styles and can increase collaboration between teachers and students. Going further, computers can help teachers and students in maintaining information about their learning and in guiding instruction while also students can use the computer tools in order to gather information and to prepare materials that demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of that information (Smaldino et al. 2008). Moreover, the use of multimedia helps to better explain concepts and supports the learning experience with the use of senses other than just sight and this is something that also supports the dual coding theory that supports that learning is better when information is referentially processed through two channels (i.e. text and sound) than when information is processed through one channel and as a consequence, students can create more cognitive paths allowing quicker retrieval of information (Hick, 1997).
Another important advantage of the use of computers and multimedia in learning are the benefits that can provide to students with special needs. In particular, students with special needs can use alternative input and output devices in order to interact with computers and do things that they normally could not accomplish independently while they can also benefit from having access to a patient tutor that allows them to work at their own pace (Indianchild.com, n.d). In addition, as supported in Indianchild.com, what students with special needs achieve through the use of a computer enhances their self-esteem and provides them with a greater sense of control and engagement with the world.
On the other side of the coin, the use of computers and multimedia in learning has its limitations and disadvantages as well, some of which are next mentioned and discussed. According to Smaldino et al. (2008), the use of computers and multimedia in learning has the following main limitations: (a) copyright, since software and other digital information can be duplicated with ease and without permission; (b) high expectations, since students and teachers may have unrealistic expectations from computers and multimedia while also many view computers as magical and expect learning to happen with little or no effort; (c) complex, since more advanced programs may be difficult to use, especially for student production, because they require the ability to use complex skills; and (d) lack of structure, since students whose learning style requires more structure guidance may become frustrated while also, students may make poor decisions about how much information to explore. When multimedia and computers in general are used, there is no interaction between the teacher and the students and other students, and students are not able to clarify their doubts about a particular point and therefore, the use of computers is a sedentary activity that lacks the social aspect of learning and encourages passive learning (Yahoo Inc., 2009). Moreover, as Veermans and Tapola (2004) supported, the fact that students can control pace and delivery of information, which are general features of multimedia, seems to be beneficial only to high-ability students while lower-ability students are reported to have difficulties coping with the growing demand for student control.
Apart from these, “multimedia requires high-end computer systems. Sound, images, animation, and mostly video, constitute large amounts of data which slow down or may not even fit in a low-end computer” (cemca.org, n.d, p.3). In addition, teachers should be educating students about their legal and ethical responsibilities to respect copyrighted material (Provenzo, Brett & McCloskey, 2005). Undoubtedly, the use of computers and multimedia has advantages and limitations and disadvantages as well. Comparing the advantages with the limitations, it can be denoted that the advantages outweigh the limitations and disadvantages. Computers play an increasing role in our everyday lives, and children should be educated in their use in order to get prepared for their encounters with them in the workplace and elsewhere (Underwood, J. & Underwood, G., 1990). “As they master computers, children build positive attitudes toward technology that will pay dividends for the rest of their lives” (Indianchild.com, n.d, ¶14). With the use of computers and multimedia, children grow up computer literate and they will have that as a great advantage since computer literacy is becoming a huge and important qualification and hence, feeling comfortable with one will put them a step ahead (Wiki.answers.com, 2009). Computers can help achieve the important goals of education, promoting achievement in basic skills, growth in higher-level problem solving, positive attitudes toward learning and social development as well (Clements, 1985).
References
Cemca.org (n.d) Multimedia as an Educational Tool. Retrieved October 3, 2009, from http://www.cemca.org/EMHandbook/Section2.pdf
Clements, D.H. (1985) Computers in Early and Primary Education. New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, INC., Englewood Cliffs
Hick. S. (1997) Benefits of Interactive Multimedia Courseware. Retrieved October 3, 2009, from http://http-server.carleton.ca/~shick/mypage/benifit.html
Indianchild.com (n.d) Computers-A Blessing or Curse? Advantages of Computers. Retrieved October 1, 2009, from http://www.indianchild.com/computers_blessing_or_curse.htm
Najjar, L.J. (1996) Multimedia Information and Learning. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 5(2). Retrieved October 2, 2009, from http://www.medvet.umontreal.ca/techno/eta6785/articles/multimedia_and_learning.pdf
Necta.org (n.d) Advantages of Multimedia. Retrieved October 4, 2009, from http://www.nectac.org/~wbtdemo/session_3/pages3/S3_Page6.html
Provenzo, E. F., Brett, A., & McCloskey, G. N (2005) Computers, curriculum, and
cultural change. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Smaldino, S., Heinich, R., Molenda, M. & Russel, J. (2008) Instructional technology
and media for learning. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
Sullivan, R. (2001) Alternative Learning Methods: Computer-Assisted Learning. Retrieved October 1, 2009, from http://www.reproline.jhu.edu/english/6read/6issues/6jtn/v4/tn111lrngmthds.htm
Underwood, J.D.M. and Underwood, G. (1990) Computers and Learning. Helping
Children acquire thinking skills. United Kingdom: Basil Blackwell.
Veermans, M. & Tapola, A. (2004) Are Multimedia/Hypermedia programs Useful for Learning? Retrieved October 2, 2009, from http://www.xplora.org/ww/en/pub/insight/school_innovation/teaching_models/ernist_questions/multimedia_programs.htm
Wiki.answers.com (2009) What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of using Computers in Education? Retrieved October 3, 2009, from http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_advantages_and_disadvantages_of_using_computers_in_education
Yahoo Inc. (2009) Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer in Education. Retrieved October 1, 2009, from http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080130033246AAMc6aN
Zimmer, J.E. (2003) Teaching Effectively with Multimedia. Retrieved October 4, 2009, from http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=87
Instructional Strategies
A fundamental aspect of teaching has been the way teachers arrange the classroom environment so students can interact and learn while also, the instructional strategies teachers use help shape learning environments and represent professional conceptions of learning and of the learner (Education Encyclopedia, n.d). With increased internationalization, growing knowledge-intensive work, and increasing use of information technology, schools are required to produce graduates who do not only possess relevant knowledge but also interpersonal relations and communication skills, ability to work in various contexts, and information literacy skills (Gravoso, Pasa, Labra, & Mori, 2008). Some instructional strategies consider students empty vessels to be filled under the firm direction of the teacher, other strategies regard them as active participants learning through inquiry and problem-solving, still others tell children they are social organisms learning through dialogue and interaction with others (Education Encyclopedia, n.d). Teaching methods can be defined as the methods in which a teacher delivers his or her subject matter to students, based on pre-determined instructional objectives, in order to promote learning in the students (Uwameiye & Ojikutu, 2008).
According to Smaldino, Heinich, Molenda and Russell (2008), teacher-centered instructional strategies are those directed specifically by the teacher who is the focus and who serves to direct the learning in very purposeful ways. Teacher-centered instruction is the traditional approach of teaching a lesson in front of a classroom and it involves planning for instruction, implementing the instructional plan, and evaluating students’ learning toward the instructional objectives (Para eLink, 2009b). Teacher-centered instructional approaches are more traditional and didactic, and students are passive recipients of information who acquire knowledge by listening to the teacher, by reading a textbook, or both (Uwameiye & Ojikutu, 2008). Moreover, teacher-centered instruction is useful for conveying new information and materials to small or large groups at one time and it literally means that the teacher is the person who is imparting knowledge or information to the student and the student is the receiver of this knowledge (Para eLink, 2009b). Examples of teacher-centered approaches include lecture, Socratic questioning, team-teaching, and demonstration (Uwameiye & Ojikutu, 2008). As Halperin stated, with the teacher-centered model, “students sit quietly, passively, receiving words of wisdom being professed by the lone instructor in front of the class” (Catalano, G.D. & Catalano, K., 1999, p.1).
As reported in Para eLink (2009b), three methods of teacher-centered instruction can be used: (a) direct teaching, which is a traditional way to provide instruction for the mastery of skills and which requires that the teacher understands the overall content as well as the appropriate order of knowledge and tasks required for students to learn and master the subjects they are studying; (b) assisted learning, that is based on the theory that students should be guided and directed by teachers toward attaining knowledge and learning principles in a subject matter without having to discover them on their own; and (c) reciprocal teaching, which is an instructional method focused on the comprehension of reading material and students are taught to comprehend reading material based on a model of analysis demonstrated by the teacher while also, this method is dependent upon developing an active dialogue between the teacher and the students to discuss points of clarification. According to Smaldino et al. (2008), student-centered instructional strategies are those oriented to meeting student needs and in which the teacher serves as a facilitator, offering guidance as students engage in learning activities and experiences that are directed by the students. Student-centered instruction emphasizes students’ efforts to learn by regulating the flow of knowledge constructed from available material while also student-centered instruction requires the teacher to exercise appropriate guidance to nurture students’ interests and academic growth according to their abilities (Para eLink, 2009a).
Student-centered strategies focus on the student directing the learning situation while also, the teacher still is responsible for planning and developing lessons that focus on the student at the center of the learning while also in general, the teacher’s role shifts to that of facilitating the learning and helping students to focus on achieving the intended outcomes (Smaldino et al., 2008). Student-centered approaches to instruction provide a learning environment that invites students to actively participate in, and help to shape, their own learning experiences (Uwameiye & Ojikutu, 2008). Moreover, student-centered approaches to teaching and learning stress the importance of students’ past experiences, exploring individual needs and interests, promoting active participation, stimulating higher-order thinking and encouraging life-long learning (Hirumi, 2002). Examples of student-centered approaches are discussion, debate, role-playing, discovery, inquiry, simulations, individualized and independent study (Uwameiye & Ojikutu, 2008). In student-centered learning, technologies should shift their role from being conveyors of information to a means for engaging students in thinking and specifically, technologies should be used to pose problems to students, provide information resources, as a social medium to support learning through collaboration and interaction (Gravoso et al., 2008). The most student-centered approach is a problem-based instruction in which students work actively and independently on problems that interest them and this requires an environment that is open and safe for asking questions, forming hypotheses, and sharing ideas while also, the teacher’s role is to pose problems, ask questions, facilitate investigation and dialogue, and provide support for learning (Education Encyclopedia, n.d).
As reported in Para eLink (2009a), the following three methods of student-centered instruction can be used: (a) inquiry learning, which is an instructional method that is student-centered, yet teachers generally maintain direction and control over how learning takes place while also, inquiry learning begins with the teacher presenting new materials to the students and students then develop and explore approaches to solutions by themselves; (b) constructivist approach, which focuses on a student’s performance and understanding rather than the measurement of skills and knowledge, while also this approach, asks students to construct new levels of understanding and in general, with this approach students build on prior knowledge to explore and construct new perspectives and meaning; and (c) situated learning, that relies on the students’ unique experience in the learning process and it emphasizes that the curriculum is centered on real-life situations while also, one underlying goal of situated-learning is to engage students in real, simulated, or conceptual situations.
Comparing teacher-centered and student-centered instructional strategies some differences are found to exist, some of which are next mentioned and discussed. In the teacher-centered instruction, knowledge primarily comes form the teacher who is the major source of information while on the other hand, in the student-centered instruction, knowledge is the combined efforts of the teacher and the student and specifically, under the guidance of the teacher, the students synthesize the gathered information using problem solving, critical thinking, and inquiry skills (Markusic, 2009).
In a student-centered approach, the student is at the center of attention while in the teacher-centered model, the teacher is the focus while also, active learning is more likely to occur in the student-centered model and passive learning is more likely to result in a teacher-centered model (Catalano, G.D. & Catalano, K., 1999). In the teacher-centered approach, teaching strategies are usually that of the lecture or exposition type and much emphasis is placed on the faster pace and greater bulk of knowledge transmitted from teacher to student but on the other hand, in the student-centered instruction, greater emphasis is given on the meaningfulness of knowledge and students acquire knowledge to address real-life issues and problems (Markusic, 2009).
Moreover, in the teacher-centered classroom, students receive knowledge passively, while in the student-centered classroom, the students are actively involved in seeking out knowledge (Markusic, 2009). As Gravoso et al. (2008) supported, the teacher-centered approach only promotes misconceptions and inert knowledge, a form of knowledge that can be recalled when prompted but cannot be applied in practical situations while on the other hand, the student-centered approach, building on students’ current knowledge and abilities, enhances the development of higher-order skills such as critical thinking and problem-solving, while also, this method enables students to acquire knowledge that transfers to unique and novel situations. Furthermore, the fundamental purpose of conducting assessment in a teacher-centered classroom is similar to that of the student-centered classroom and that is to increase the effectiveness of instruction in the classroom, however, the approaches to conducting assessments are different in these two paradigms (Markusic, 2009).
Apart from these, the tools used for assessment in the teacher-centered instruction, are those that clearly delineate the right answer from the other answers while on the contrary, in the student-centered classroom, the importance of right answers is overshadowed by the importance of creating better questions and thus, assessment tools vary to embrace the multiple facets of learning and besides paper tests, there will be portfolios, performance tests, and others (Markusic, 2009). In addition, student-centered instruction helps students take more responsibilities and initiative and requires them to use more creativity than teacher-centered instruction (Para eLink, 2009a). Moreover, student-centered methods have repeatedly been shown to be superior to the traditional teacher-centered approaches to instruction, a conclusion that applies whether the assessed outcome is short-term mastery, long-term retention, or depth of understanding of course material, acquisition of critical thinking or problem-solving skills, formation of positive attitudes toward the subject being taught, or level of confidence in knowledge or skills (Felder, n.d).
Each teacher has his or her own teaching philosophy and some teachers have eclectic teaching philosophies to enable them to choose the best features of major pedagogic systems of beliefs but whichever philosophy is supported by the teacher, it should respond to the needs of the students and today, when students are no longer viewed as tabula rasa, that teaching philosophy should be student-centered (Markusic, 2009). The emphasis of today’s instruction in the classroom is to shift teaching strategies, classroom discipline, and classroom assessments from the teacher-centered paradigm to the student-centered paradigm (Markusic, 2009). Shifting the center of attention of classroom activities from the teacher to the student metaphorically seems to be a significant paradigm shift in education (Catalano, G. D. & Catalano, K., 1999). But as Mdagana et al. stated: “the success in the use of the method depends on an intelligent analysis of the educational purpose, the pupils in the class, the curriculum content of the moment or the type of subject matter being taught” (Uwameiye & Ojikutu, 2008, ¶ 7).
References
Catalano, G. D. & Catalano, K. (1999) Transformation: From Teacher-Centered to Student-Centered Engineering Education. Retrieved September 12, 2009, from http://soa.asee.org/paper/jee/paper-view.cfm?pdf=595.pdf
Education Encyclopedia (n.d) Instructional Strategies. Retrieved September 12, 2009, from http://www.answers.com/topic/instructional-strategies
Felder, R. (n.d) Student-Centered Teaching and Learning. Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/Student-Centered.html
Gravoso, R.S., Pasa, A.E., Labra, G.B. & Mori, T. (2008) Design and Use of Instructional Materials for Student-Centered Learning: A Case in Learning Ecological Concepts. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 17(1). Retrieve September 11, 2009, from http://docs.google.com/gview?a=v&q=cache:OPV1FbQJieMJ:www.philjol.info/index.php/TAPER/article/viewPDFInterstitial/353/306+Design+and+Use+of+Instructional+Materials+for+Student-Centered+Learning:+A+Case+in+Learning+Ecological+Concepts.&hl=en
Hirumi, A. (2002) Student-Centered, technology-rich learning environments (SCenTRLE): operationalizing constructivist approaches to teaching and learning. Retrieved September 12, 2009, from http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-96416239/student-centered-technology-rich.html
Markusic, M. (2009) Instruction Paradigms: Learner-Centered versus Teacher-Centered. Retrieved September 12, 2009, from http://www.brighthub.com/education/special/articles/5486.aspx
Para eLink (2009a) Student-Centered Instruction. Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://ici2.umn.edu/elink/91mrw92mrw/c91mrw92mrw_2.html
Para eLink (2009b) Teacher-Centered Instruction. Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://ici2.umn.edu/elink/91mrw92mrw/c91mrw92mrw_1.html
Smaldino, S., Heinich, R., Molenda, M., & Russell, J. (2008) Instructional technology and media for learning. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
Uwameiye, R. & Ojikutu, R.A. (2008) Effect of Team Teaching on the Academic Achievement of Students in Introductory Technology. Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://itdl.org/Journal/Oct_08/article05.htm
According to Smaldino, Heinich, Molenda and Russell (2008), teacher-centered instructional strategies are those directed specifically by the teacher who is the focus and who serves to direct the learning in very purposeful ways. Teacher-centered instruction is the traditional approach of teaching a lesson in front of a classroom and it involves planning for instruction, implementing the instructional plan, and evaluating students’ learning toward the instructional objectives (Para eLink, 2009b). Teacher-centered instructional approaches are more traditional and didactic, and students are passive recipients of information who acquire knowledge by listening to the teacher, by reading a textbook, or both (Uwameiye & Ojikutu, 2008). Moreover, teacher-centered instruction is useful for conveying new information and materials to small or large groups at one time and it literally means that the teacher is the person who is imparting knowledge or information to the student and the student is the receiver of this knowledge (Para eLink, 2009b). Examples of teacher-centered approaches include lecture, Socratic questioning, team-teaching, and demonstration (Uwameiye & Ojikutu, 2008). As Halperin stated, with the teacher-centered model, “students sit quietly, passively, receiving words of wisdom being professed by the lone instructor in front of the class” (Catalano, G.D. & Catalano, K., 1999, p.1).
As reported in Para eLink (2009b), three methods of teacher-centered instruction can be used: (a) direct teaching, which is a traditional way to provide instruction for the mastery of skills and which requires that the teacher understands the overall content as well as the appropriate order of knowledge and tasks required for students to learn and master the subjects they are studying; (b) assisted learning, that is based on the theory that students should be guided and directed by teachers toward attaining knowledge and learning principles in a subject matter without having to discover them on their own; and (c) reciprocal teaching, which is an instructional method focused on the comprehension of reading material and students are taught to comprehend reading material based on a model of analysis demonstrated by the teacher while also, this method is dependent upon developing an active dialogue between the teacher and the students to discuss points of clarification. According to Smaldino et al. (2008), student-centered instructional strategies are those oriented to meeting student needs and in which the teacher serves as a facilitator, offering guidance as students engage in learning activities and experiences that are directed by the students. Student-centered instruction emphasizes students’ efforts to learn by regulating the flow of knowledge constructed from available material while also student-centered instruction requires the teacher to exercise appropriate guidance to nurture students’ interests and academic growth according to their abilities (Para eLink, 2009a).
Student-centered strategies focus on the student directing the learning situation while also, the teacher still is responsible for planning and developing lessons that focus on the student at the center of the learning while also in general, the teacher’s role shifts to that of facilitating the learning and helping students to focus on achieving the intended outcomes (Smaldino et al., 2008). Student-centered approaches to instruction provide a learning environment that invites students to actively participate in, and help to shape, their own learning experiences (Uwameiye & Ojikutu, 2008). Moreover, student-centered approaches to teaching and learning stress the importance of students’ past experiences, exploring individual needs and interests, promoting active participation, stimulating higher-order thinking and encouraging life-long learning (Hirumi, 2002). Examples of student-centered approaches are discussion, debate, role-playing, discovery, inquiry, simulations, individualized and independent study (Uwameiye & Ojikutu, 2008). In student-centered learning, technologies should shift their role from being conveyors of information to a means for engaging students in thinking and specifically, technologies should be used to pose problems to students, provide information resources, as a social medium to support learning through collaboration and interaction (Gravoso et al., 2008). The most student-centered approach is a problem-based instruction in which students work actively and independently on problems that interest them and this requires an environment that is open and safe for asking questions, forming hypotheses, and sharing ideas while also, the teacher’s role is to pose problems, ask questions, facilitate investigation and dialogue, and provide support for learning (Education Encyclopedia, n.d).
As reported in Para eLink (2009a), the following three methods of student-centered instruction can be used: (a) inquiry learning, which is an instructional method that is student-centered, yet teachers generally maintain direction and control over how learning takes place while also, inquiry learning begins with the teacher presenting new materials to the students and students then develop and explore approaches to solutions by themselves; (b) constructivist approach, which focuses on a student’s performance and understanding rather than the measurement of skills and knowledge, while also this approach, asks students to construct new levels of understanding and in general, with this approach students build on prior knowledge to explore and construct new perspectives and meaning; and (c) situated learning, that relies on the students’ unique experience in the learning process and it emphasizes that the curriculum is centered on real-life situations while also, one underlying goal of situated-learning is to engage students in real, simulated, or conceptual situations.
Comparing teacher-centered and student-centered instructional strategies some differences are found to exist, some of which are next mentioned and discussed. In the teacher-centered instruction, knowledge primarily comes form the teacher who is the major source of information while on the other hand, in the student-centered instruction, knowledge is the combined efforts of the teacher and the student and specifically, under the guidance of the teacher, the students synthesize the gathered information using problem solving, critical thinking, and inquiry skills (Markusic, 2009).
In a student-centered approach, the student is at the center of attention while in the teacher-centered model, the teacher is the focus while also, active learning is more likely to occur in the student-centered model and passive learning is more likely to result in a teacher-centered model (Catalano, G.D. & Catalano, K., 1999). In the teacher-centered approach, teaching strategies are usually that of the lecture or exposition type and much emphasis is placed on the faster pace and greater bulk of knowledge transmitted from teacher to student but on the other hand, in the student-centered instruction, greater emphasis is given on the meaningfulness of knowledge and students acquire knowledge to address real-life issues and problems (Markusic, 2009).
Moreover, in the teacher-centered classroom, students receive knowledge passively, while in the student-centered classroom, the students are actively involved in seeking out knowledge (Markusic, 2009). As Gravoso et al. (2008) supported, the teacher-centered approach only promotes misconceptions and inert knowledge, a form of knowledge that can be recalled when prompted but cannot be applied in practical situations while on the other hand, the student-centered approach, building on students’ current knowledge and abilities, enhances the development of higher-order skills such as critical thinking and problem-solving, while also, this method enables students to acquire knowledge that transfers to unique and novel situations. Furthermore, the fundamental purpose of conducting assessment in a teacher-centered classroom is similar to that of the student-centered classroom and that is to increase the effectiveness of instruction in the classroom, however, the approaches to conducting assessments are different in these two paradigms (Markusic, 2009).
Apart from these, the tools used for assessment in the teacher-centered instruction, are those that clearly delineate the right answer from the other answers while on the contrary, in the student-centered classroom, the importance of right answers is overshadowed by the importance of creating better questions and thus, assessment tools vary to embrace the multiple facets of learning and besides paper tests, there will be portfolios, performance tests, and others (Markusic, 2009). In addition, student-centered instruction helps students take more responsibilities and initiative and requires them to use more creativity than teacher-centered instruction (Para eLink, 2009a). Moreover, student-centered methods have repeatedly been shown to be superior to the traditional teacher-centered approaches to instruction, a conclusion that applies whether the assessed outcome is short-term mastery, long-term retention, or depth of understanding of course material, acquisition of critical thinking or problem-solving skills, formation of positive attitudes toward the subject being taught, or level of confidence in knowledge or skills (Felder, n.d).
Each teacher has his or her own teaching philosophy and some teachers have eclectic teaching philosophies to enable them to choose the best features of major pedagogic systems of beliefs but whichever philosophy is supported by the teacher, it should respond to the needs of the students and today, when students are no longer viewed as tabula rasa, that teaching philosophy should be student-centered (Markusic, 2009). The emphasis of today’s instruction in the classroom is to shift teaching strategies, classroom discipline, and classroom assessments from the teacher-centered paradigm to the student-centered paradigm (Markusic, 2009). Shifting the center of attention of classroom activities from the teacher to the student metaphorically seems to be a significant paradigm shift in education (Catalano, G. D. & Catalano, K., 1999). But as Mdagana et al. stated: “the success in the use of the method depends on an intelligent analysis of the educational purpose, the pupils in the class, the curriculum content of the moment or the type of subject matter being taught” (Uwameiye & Ojikutu, 2008, ¶ 7).
References
Catalano, G. D. & Catalano, K. (1999) Transformation: From Teacher-Centered to Student-Centered Engineering Education. Retrieved September 12, 2009, from http://soa.asee.org/paper/jee/paper-view.cfm?pdf=595.pdf
Education Encyclopedia (n.d) Instructional Strategies. Retrieved September 12, 2009, from http://www.answers.com/topic/instructional-strategies
Felder, R. (n.d) Student-Centered Teaching and Learning. Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/Student-Centered.html
Gravoso, R.S., Pasa, A.E., Labra, G.B. & Mori, T. (2008) Design and Use of Instructional Materials for Student-Centered Learning: A Case in Learning Ecological Concepts. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 17(1). Retrieve September 11, 2009, from http://docs.google.com/gview?a=v&q=cache:OPV1FbQJieMJ:www.philjol.info/index.php/TAPER/article/viewPDFInterstitial/353/306+Design+and+Use+of+Instructional+Materials+for+Student-Centered+Learning:+A+Case+in+Learning+Ecological+Concepts.&hl=en
Hirumi, A. (2002) Student-Centered, technology-rich learning environments (SCenTRLE): operationalizing constructivist approaches to teaching and learning. Retrieved September 12, 2009, from http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-96416239/student-centered-technology-rich.html
Markusic, M. (2009) Instruction Paradigms: Learner-Centered versus Teacher-Centered. Retrieved September 12, 2009, from http://www.brighthub.com/education/special/articles/5486.aspx
Para eLink (2009a) Student-Centered Instruction. Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://ici2.umn.edu/elink/91mrw92mrw/c91mrw92mrw_2.html
Para eLink (2009b) Teacher-Centered Instruction. Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://ici2.umn.edu/elink/91mrw92mrw/c91mrw92mrw_1.html
Smaldino, S., Heinich, R., Molenda, M., & Russell, J. (2008) Instructional technology and media for learning. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
Uwameiye, R. & Ojikutu, R.A. (2008) Effect of Team Teaching on the Academic Achievement of Students in Introductory Technology. Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://itdl.org/Journal/Oct_08/article05.htm
Monday, August 9, 2010
Wi-Fi and Laptops
We live in a world where people look to technology to enhance and improve their lives and in fact, laptops have now become a standard item to have and this technology is seen to be utilized everywhere at home, stores, work, and schools (Noel, 2008). Over the last decade, many schools have investigated the educational possibilities of mobile computing while more recently, many K-12 schools are implementing the use of laptop computers and in fact, improvements in portable computing technology as well as examples of successful pilot programs using laptops have inspired many schools to take into great consideration laptops for their students (Belanger, 2001).
As Peyman and Mann (n.d) noted, in the last few years, the use of wireless local area networks (WLAN) has increased significantly and this is something that has made technology popular amongst the various fields of society, including education. Schools are striving to help students become technologically literate at a young age but while there are advantages to laptop computing in K-12 education, there are also many concerns that should be taken into consideration (Miles, n.d).
“A laptop is a general term referring to a computer that has a built-in display and keyboard and is intended to be a portable personal computer. A laptop computer runs the same operating system and software applications as a larger desktop PC, but it is considerably smaller in size and lighter in weight” (National Centre for Technology in Education, 2007, p.1). Laptops or notebook computers are the most prevalent one-to-one computing devices and for more than a decade schools have used laptops and in fact, in 2003 more than 24 million laptops were sold in the United States (Jackson, 2004). As Greenfield (1990) supported, laptops have started making inroads in the educational sector in ways that are practical and innovative.
According to the British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 50% of primary schools and 82% of secondary schools reported making at least some use of wireless network technology while also, in 23% of primary schools and 22% of secondary schools, either all or a significant portion of their network was wireless (Peyman & Mann, n.d). The use of laptops in the classroom can provide teachers and students with many benefits and can change significantly the teaching and learning processes in unique ways. As outlined by the National Centre for Technology in Education (2007), laptops are a window into the world and a tool with which to enhance learning while also, they can be used to teach and learn as well as to create and share.
Two important advantages that laptops provide are portability and convenience. Laptops can be taken out of the school by teachers and students and in fact, it is possible to transport them to various environments and this is something very convenient for teachers and students (Greenfield, 1990). These advantages lead also to another advantage of laptops and that is flexibility. As Fay (2006) supported, laptops enable students to engage in their work when and where they want and with few constraints while also, the results of a study conducted by Fay, revealed that students spent more time on task when they had laptops and in fact, they worked more frequently and for longer. Laptops provide flexibility not only to the students but also to the teachers. Teachers have the opportunity to take laptops home from school and can work and up skill themselves according to their personal schedules (National Centre for Technology in Education, 2007). As reported by the National Centre for Technology in Education, teachers can take laptops home in order to prepare lessons, carry out administrative tasks as well as to evaluate educational software programs in more independent way. Furthermore, laptops increase access. As supported by the Keystone Tech Team (2005), laptops provide teachers the opportunity to access the technology where and when they need it while also, laptops can be even compared to calculators and hence, students can use them at their desk or collaboratively in a group setting.
Laptops are also characterized for their functionality. In specific, laptops have almost all the functionality of desktop computers and hence, they allow students to perform all the tasks they were used to perform traditionally on a PC such as creating presentations, e-mailing, surfing the Internet as well as collaborating with other students (Jackson, 2004). It can also be denoted that laptops offer an alternative to traditional computer room scenarios and in fact, they can perform like any desktop computer but in addition, they have the advantage of being more readily integrated into the classroom situations and learning activities (National Centre for Technology in Education, 2007).
Apart from these, the use of laptops helps students get engaged in their own learning. As Negroponte (2009) outlined, when students have access to laptops they get engaged in their own education and they have the chance to learn, create, share, and collaborate while also, they become connected to each other and to the world. In addition to these as Capraro (n.d) reported, laptops offer a new, improved realm of learning for students; they make lessons interactive and this is something that keeps students engaged in the learning process; while they also provide instant feedback and assistance and they can serve as a source for limitless new knowledge.
Furthermore, the use of laptops in the classroom enhances and promotes independent learning. In a laptop classroom, there is lecturing and more individual and group project work and hence, teachers no longer have to provide all the information since, students can gather much of what is needed from the Internet while they can also work more on their own and at their own pace or work in small groups to prepare projects (WikiBooks org., 2006). In addition, as supported by the WikiBooks org., teachers can act as consultants to the students who can offer individualized suggestions and corrections as well as more frequent assessments of individual and group progress.
In a laptop classroom, students “as independent learners, they also have to take on more responsibility for their learning, by working independently they have to monitor their own progress, identify the tools and resources they need to use, and know when to seek help. Developing the ability to learn independently, collaborate with peers to accomplish work, and communicate the conclusions of your work are the core of 21st-century skills, and a highly valued set of competencies in the world outside of school” (WikiBooks org., 2006, ¶4).
A great advantage of laptops is that they promote cooperation among the students. As Cromwell (1999) outlined, cooperation and a sense of community can de developed among the students when they work collaboratively on projects and share information about their laptops. This was also outlined by the results of a study made by Rockman that specifically revealed that the majority of the teachers that participated in the research and made use of laptops in the classroom, reported an increase in cooperative learning and project-based instruction (Belanger, 2001).
An also important advantage of laptops is that they contribute to an improvement of students’ achievement and to an increase in test scores. This was also revealed by the results of the second of a three-year study at Henricho County high school that showed in specific, a noticeable improvement in students’ test scores in the subjects of biology, history, and chemistry (Noel, 2008). Moreover, the results of another study made by Stevenson revealed also that students with laptops demonstrated a sustained level of academic achievement compared to the students who did not make use of laptops while also, the academic benefits were most significant in at-risk student populations (Belanger, 2001). In accordance with these, are the results of a study made by Gulek and Demirtas (2005) that revealed that students who participated in a laptop immersion program tended to earn significantly higher test scores and grades for mathematics, English-language arts, writing and overall Grade Point Averages (GPAs).
The use of laptops in the classroom creates greater interest in and excitement about learning in general. As Cromwell (1999) stated, “Laptops have created … a sense of excitement about learning in general…They’ve created greater interest in research, writing, and projects students work on…The laptops lead to a sense of discovery every day, keeping students more focused and on task” (¶3).
An important advantage of laptops is that they enhance learning for students with disabilities. In particular, laptops provide students with disabilities the opportunity to succeed that may not be otherwise provided while also, laptops provide special education students an additional visual representation of learning material that directly addresses the needs of these students (Gulek & Demirtas, 2005).
Laptops provide also more opportunities for students to develop and acquire important computer skills that will be necessary to them in their future workplace. As Cromwell (1999) reported, many proponents of a laptop for every student think young people need to begin developing and acquiring computer skills in order to be employable when they graduate from high school or college.
According to Jackson (2004), laptops provide also the following general four advantages: (a) speed of implementation and in fact laptops are easy to learn, if you already know how to use a desktop computer; (b) support availability, where technical support, software, and peripherals are readily available with laptops; (c) integration help and in fact educational materials such as lesson plans, mail lists, etc. are easy to locate using laptops; (d) cross-platform capability, where various laptop models are made for PCs and Macs, that ensure a smooth transition from existing technology.
Laptops also contribute to an improvement of students’ writing skills. In particular, the ease of using a word processor along with the ability to go back and modify things that would otherwise not be possible when writing to a paper, helps students learn how to write more coherent and persuasive text (Timmer, 2009). Furthermore, the use of laptops offers students the opportunity to transfer knowledge across disciplines. As Gulek and Demirtas (2005) stated, “This is believed to occur because laptop students are involved in: (1) highly engaged and focused activities spending more time on their work and completing larger projects; (2) frequently apply active learning strategies; (3) interact with each other about their work; (4) problem solve through project-based activities, which usually involve more critical thinking; and (5) regularly find information, make sense of it, and communicate it” (p.6).
Undoubtedly, the use of laptops in the classroom has many advantages and can provide students and teachers with many benefits that can enhance and improve the teaching and learning processes. Laptops can be used in various ways in the classroom in order to enhance and improve learning and some of those ways are next mentioned and discussed. Students can use laptops in class as part of an integrated lesson that can be teacher-directed or student-directed or they can use them at home where their use is totally student-centred (National Centre for Technology in Education, 2007). As stated by the National Centre for Technology in Education “Allocating laptops for student use on a full-time basis can be advantageous for the following reasons: students can explore their preferred learning styles independently; students can collaborate on assignments with peers via email; students can prepare and present homework or project work using multimedia; students can access learning support if educational software programs are made available for home use” (p.2).
Furthermore, teachers can use laptops in all content areas by incorporating blogging, podcasts, quizzes and online textbooks into their instruction and this is something that can improve the teaching and learning methods as well as create a more fun and interactive environment for both teachers and students (Noel, 2008). In addition, as Noel reported, with the use of laptops in the classroom, the amount of paper being used can be greatly diminished.
The 1999 Laptop Learning Challenge sponsored by Toshiba and National Science Teacher’s Association recognized innovative uses of laptops in K-12 science and mathematics education such as: some award-winning ideas that showed students using laptops to facilitate group work, to analyze data immediately during a lab exercise, conduct scientific investigations in the field rather than in the classroom; in writing activities, student projects and presentations; in creating spreadsheets to solve mathematical problems; and creating book reports using presentation software such as PowerPoint or HyperStudio (Belanger, 2001).
On the other hand, the use of laptops in the classroom does not lack of some disadvantages, some of which are next mentioned and discussed. Laptops are too expensive. Many laptops cost $1000 and up and this price is too high for many schools (Jackson, 2004). In addition, “according to a study done by the UCLA Department of Education, software, internet connection, maintenance and training costs must also be considered when budgeting for a laptop program” (Miles, n.d, ¶2). This was also supported by Belanger (2001), who reported specifically that added costs such as hardware and network costs, technical support and faculty training are the greatest obstacles. Moreover, laptops are too expensive to be distributed equitably among children and therefore, their use in just a few classrooms is simply unfair (Cromwell, 1999).
The fact that laptops are too expensive leads to another disadvantage and that is inequities between the students. Students with laptops at home have an unfair advantage over students who do not have laptops at home and this is something that raises concerns about school-system-funded laptops for every student (Cromwell, 1999). In addition to these, the fact that not all students have an Internet connection at home and hence, allowing laptops to be checked out for homework purposes will not be possible if assignments require Internet usage (Miles, n.d). As Belanger (2001) noted, “Laptop programs may worsen technology inequities among students for families who are unable to assume these costs” (¶11).
Furthermore, the use of laptops in the classroom can make students not use their time in class productively or efficiently. For instance, their work can be interspersed with other activities such as checking and writing email, reading news, instant messaging, etc. and consequently, this constant availability of the laptops leads to constraining students’ thinking (Fay, 2006). In addition to these, reliability constitutes another disadvantage of laptops. In particular, during the teaching and learning processes, technical problems may occur and if replacement computers are not available, then valuable time can be wasted (Miles, n.d).
As Jackson (2004) supported, laptops have also the following two disadvantages: (a) mobility, and in fact, laptops are not actually mobile since people cannot walk and work on them; and (b) physical barrier, where the laptop screen can make it difficult for teachers to monitor work and communicate with students. Furthermore, other disadvantages of laptops include the following two as reported by Miles (n.d): (a) security, and in specific, due to the fact that laptops are small and lightweight enough to be hidden in backpacks, there may be thefts if the school does not monitor the laptops strictly or attach a security device to them; and (b) health concerns, since there is growing concern about the safety of the electromagnetic fields emitted from wireless devices used by laptop computers.
Apart from these, another important disadvantage related to the use of laptops in the classroom refers to the teachers’ role as the students’ guardians. In specific, when laptops are used in the classroom, teachers have to become more active guardians over the activities of their students and maybe such tools as remote desktop viewing of students’ laptops as well as old-fashioned walking around the classroom, may keep students in line with using the laptop only for classroom and educational purposes (Manal, n.d).
Relating to the use of laptops in classroom is the use of Wi-Fi. “Wi-Fi is short for Wireless Fidelity and is a particular type of Wireless local area network (WLAN)-i.e., you don’t need to plug your computer into a phone network via a cable. There are many types of WLAN but all of them allow two or more computers to form a network using radio frequency (RF) signals. They allow users to access and share data, applications, internet access or other network resources in the same way as wired (cable) systems” (Snowdon, 2009, p.1).
A Wi-Fi enabled laptop program brings technology to the children and in fact, Wi-Fi can connect the students studying at home to the school’s intranet and its content and instructional software which does not include the internet with inappropriate content for students such as pornography, gambling, etc. (Adrignola, 2009). The option for Wi-Fi connectivity is available for most of the interactive Whiteboards that are increasingly used in schools with educational software in order to cover the curriculum (Peyman & Mann, n.d).
The use of Wi-Fi helps improve the teaching and learning processes and in general it has many advantages, some of which are next mentioned and discussed. Wi-Fi offers flexibility to teachers and students. In specific, teachers can make use of a wireless enabled laptop and can access the wireless network to show students work and educational material, share resources, obtain information from the internet from anywhere within a range of an AP, without being tied to a wired PC (Snowdon, 2009). In addition, as Snowdon supported, Wi-Fi enables for a flexible learning and the accommodation of different learning styles as well as the adaptation of any learning space to suit the type of learning taking place.
An important advantage of Wi-Fi is its low cost. Despite the fact that the initial cost that is necessary for Wireless LAN hardware can be similar to the cost of wired LAN hardware, the installation expenses can be significantly lower (Snowdon, 2009). Moreover, the fact that the cost per subscriber for a Wi-Fi is quite low enables a school district to build its own private access network independent of commercial operators (Adrignola, 2009). Additionally, as Adrignola stated, “Wi-Fi allows local area networks (LANs) to be deployed without cables and wires for client devices, typically reducing the costs of network deployment and expansion…Wireless network adapters are now built into most laptops. The price of chipsets for Wi-Fi continue to drop, making it an economical networking option included in even more devices” (¶16).
Wi-Fi is accessible and adaptable. It provides access to the network from anywhere in the school within range of an access point and this gives users the freedom to use ICT where and when it is needed while also, with Wi-Fi, it is easier and quicker to add or move devices on the network (Snowdon, 2009). In accordance with the advantages of accessibility and adaptability is the advantage of portability and convenience. As Snowdon supported, Wi-Fi allows computer devices to move around the school with the students and this is something that allows for outdoor field work and work in non-classroom spaces such as the library, playground, etc. As Adrignola (2009) outlined, “With Wi-Fi service, students, faculty and staff can conveniently use their Wi-Fi enabled devices anywhere in the school campus during school time” (¶17).
Wi-Fi contributes also to an enhancement and improvement of technology and academic skills. In particular, the longer the students use compute and internet/intranet, the more digital skills they will learn while also, students who spend more time on school’s intranet usually get more information of their subjects and it is most likely that they will find it easier to do their homework and hence, improving of the grade is automatic (Adrignola, 2009).
Moreover, the use of Wi-Fi provides opportunities for students to interact with the teacher, other students as well as with outsiders (Hodgson, 2004). Wi-Fi provides significant advantages for instruction in various content areas such as literacy, numeracy, and writing. For instance, a Wi-Fi enabled laptop loaded with interactive literacy instructional software can greatly enhance instruction and some examples may include English language students who can improve their English vocabulary by making use of sight-sound relationships that are made available via the laptop and software while also, software products offer practice tests that students can use when they are studying for their American Tests (ACT) in order to improve their reading and test taking skills (Adrignola, 2009).
Apart from these, Wi-Fi enabled laptops offer interactive software that can enhance students’ number sense while they also offer math games that enable practice and development of number sense while also, 3-D graphics can help high school students understand physics, biology, and trigonometry (Adrignola, 2009).
Although Wi-Fi has many advantages, it has some disadvantages as well. An important disadvantage of Wi-Fi refers to slower data transfer and specifically, the current data rates of wireless networks indicates that high bandwidth activities are better done on wired networks while also, when the number of devices that make use of the network increase, then the data transfer rate to each device will decrease accordingly (Snowdon, 2009). Another disadvantage of Wi-Fi as Snowdon reported, involves upgrading. As wireless standards change, it may be necessary to upgrade to higher specifications of wireless that could mean replacing wireless equipment while also, security with Wi-Fi is more difficult to guarantee.
According to Snowdon (2009), Wi-Fi has also the following two disadvantages: (a) signal reception, that means that devices will only operate at a limited distance from an access point while also, obstacles between the access point and the user such as walls, trees, glass, etc. can also affect and determine the distance of operation; and (b) configuration, that means that as more people use wireless devices then there is the risk that certain radio frequencies used for wireless will become congested and prone to interference.
As Adrignola (2009) outlined, “Today’s children are digital natives. Today’s adolescence love digital devices: iPhone, iPod Touch, smart phone, and laptop/netbook. With Wi-Fi service on school campus, students with Wi-Fi enabled devices could enjoy surfing on internet during school time. This will most likely to extend their time of practicing technology skills, as well as academic studying” (¶6). Laptops are definitely necessary in the classroom around the world today to help students gain any advantage they can in today’s cutthroat education system (Ryan, n.d). Closing up, with the use of laptops and handheld computers in the classroom, education is becoming more high tech while also, the involvement of Wi-Fi in the classroom helps students with real time streaming and in fact, it can free students from note taking and therefore, it can allow them to concentrate more on the discussion developed in the classroom (Hodgson, 2004).
References
Adrignola (2009) K-12 School Computer Networking/Chapter 31. Retrieved
January 6, 2009, from http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/K-12_School_Computer_Networking/Chapter_31
Belanger, Y. (2001) Laptop Computers in the K-12 Classroom. Retrieved
January 6, 2009, from http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-1/laptop.html
Capraro, E. (n.d) Is the use of Laptops in the Classroom Beneficial or a Distraction? Retrieved January 7, 2009, from http://www.helium.com/debates/180273-emlaptopsem-emclassroomem-embeneficialem-emdistractionem/side_by_side?page=2
Cromwell, S. (1999) Laptops Change Curriculum-and Students. Retrieved
January 6, 2009, from http://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/curr178.shtml
Fay, A.L. (2006) Impact of Laptop Computers on Students’ Academic Lives. Retrieved January 6, 2009, from http://www.cmu.edu/teaching/resources/PublicationsArchives/StudiesWhitepapers/LaptopStudyReport-2006.pdf
Greenfield, E. (1990) Laptops in Education: accessibility is the key. Retrieved
January 8, 2009, from http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=LFKTPv2dQ9SYxvznmQLlm8B4DnzVpWcnvN98mrMzLcyJ4tQGByh2!-635650599!-165273011?docId=5000131090
Gulek, J.C. & Demirtas, H. (2005) Learning with Technology: The Impact of Laptop Use on Student Achievement. The Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment, 3(2). Retrieved January 6, 2009, from http://escholarship.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1052&context=jtla
Hodgson, J. (2004) Wireless-Uses in Education. Retrieved January 6, 2009, from http://wiki.media-culture.org.au/index.php/Wireless_-_Education
Jackson, L. (2004) The 411 on One-to-One Computing. Retrieved
January 6, 2009, from http://www.educationworld.com/a_tech/tech/tech194.shtml
Keystone Tech Team (2005) Desktops vs Laptops in Education. Retrieved
January 5, 2009, from http://www.slideshare.net/barbwit56/desktops-vs
Manal, N. (n.d) Is the use of Laptops in the Classroom Beneficial or a Distraction? Retrieved January 7, 2009, from http://www.helium.com/debates/180273-emlaptopsem-emclassroomem-embeneficialem-emdistractionem/side_by_side?page=4
Miles, S. (n.d) The Disadvantages of Laptops in an Elementary Classroom. Retrieved
January 8, 2009, from http://www.ehow.com/facts_5503182_disadvantages-laptops-elementary-classroom.html
National Centre for Technology in Education (2007) Laptops. Retrieved
January 6, 2009, from http://www.ncte.ie/documents/advicesheets/04LaptopsNov08.pdf
Negroponte, N. (2009) We See the Child as the Agent of Change. Retrieved
January 6, 2009, from http://www.inwent.org/ez/articles/154508/index.en.shtml
Noel (2008) Laptop Use in School is a Definite Benefit. Retrieved
January 6, 2009, from http://www.thegreenergrass.org/2008/07/laptop-use-in-school-is-definite.html
Peyman, A. & Mann, S. (n.d) Wi-Fi in Schools. Retrieved January 7, 2009, from http://www.hpa.org.uk/web/HPAwebFile/HPAweb_C/1254510618866
Ryan, P. (n.d) Is the use of Laptops in the Classroom Beneficial or a Distraction? Retrieved January 7, 2009, from http://www.helium.com/debates/180273-emlaptopsem-emclassroomem-embeneficialem-emdistractionem/side_by_side?page=10
Snowdon, C. (2009) WiFi in Schools-Stockton Borough Council’s Position. Retrieved
January 6, 2009, from http://egenda.stockton.gov.uk/aksstockton/images/att10617.doc
Timmer, J. (2009) In-class laptop use sparks backlash, possibly lower grades. Retrieved January 6, 2009, from http://arstechnica.com/science/news/2009/03/in-class-laptop-use-may-be-sparking-a-backlash.ars
WikiBooks org. (2006) Using Laptops for Education. Retrieved
January 7, 2009, from http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Educational_Technology_Innovation_and_Impact/Multimedia_Courseware/Using_Laptops_for_Education
As Peyman and Mann (n.d) noted, in the last few years, the use of wireless local area networks (WLAN) has increased significantly and this is something that has made technology popular amongst the various fields of society, including education. Schools are striving to help students become technologically literate at a young age but while there are advantages to laptop computing in K-12 education, there are also many concerns that should be taken into consideration (Miles, n.d).
“A laptop is a general term referring to a computer that has a built-in display and keyboard and is intended to be a portable personal computer. A laptop computer runs the same operating system and software applications as a larger desktop PC, but it is considerably smaller in size and lighter in weight” (National Centre for Technology in Education, 2007, p.1). Laptops or notebook computers are the most prevalent one-to-one computing devices and for more than a decade schools have used laptops and in fact, in 2003 more than 24 million laptops were sold in the United States (Jackson, 2004). As Greenfield (1990) supported, laptops have started making inroads in the educational sector in ways that are practical and innovative.
According to the British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 50% of primary schools and 82% of secondary schools reported making at least some use of wireless network technology while also, in 23% of primary schools and 22% of secondary schools, either all or a significant portion of their network was wireless (Peyman & Mann, n.d). The use of laptops in the classroom can provide teachers and students with many benefits and can change significantly the teaching and learning processes in unique ways. As outlined by the National Centre for Technology in Education (2007), laptops are a window into the world and a tool with which to enhance learning while also, they can be used to teach and learn as well as to create and share.
Two important advantages that laptops provide are portability and convenience. Laptops can be taken out of the school by teachers and students and in fact, it is possible to transport them to various environments and this is something very convenient for teachers and students (Greenfield, 1990). These advantages lead also to another advantage of laptops and that is flexibility. As Fay (2006) supported, laptops enable students to engage in their work when and where they want and with few constraints while also, the results of a study conducted by Fay, revealed that students spent more time on task when they had laptops and in fact, they worked more frequently and for longer. Laptops provide flexibility not only to the students but also to the teachers. Teachers have the opportunity to take laptops home from school and can work and up skill themselves according to their personal schedules (National Centre for Technology in Education, 2007). As reported by the National Centre for Technology in Education, teachers can take laptops home in order to prepare lessons, carry out administrative tasks as well as to evaluate educational software programs in more independent way. Furthermore, laptops increase access. As supported by the Keystone Tech Team (2005), laptops provide teachers the opportunity to access the technology where and when they need it while also, laptops can be even compared to calculators and hence, students can use them at their desk or collaboratively in a group setting.
Laptops are also characterized for their functionality. In specific, laptops have almost all the functionality of desktop computers and hence, they allow students to perform all the tasks they were used to perform traditionally on a PC such as creating presentations, e-mailing, surfing the Internet as well as collaborating with other students (Jackson, 2004). It can also be denoted that laptops offer an alternative to traditional computer room scenarios and in fact, they can perform like any desktop computer but in addition, they have the advantage of being more readily integrated into the classroom situations and learning activities (National Centre for Technology in Education, 2007).
Apart from these, the use of laptops helps students get engaged in their own learning. As Negroponte (2009) outlined, when students have access to laptops they get engaged in their own education and they have the chance to learn, create, share, and collaborate while also, they become connected to each other and to the world. In addition to these as Capraro (n.d) reported, laptops offer a new, improved realm of learning for students; they make lessons interactive and this is something that keeps students engaged in the learning process; while they also provide instant feedback and assistance and they can serve as a source for limitless new knowledge.
Furthermore, the use of laptops in the classroom enhances and promotes independent learning. In a laptop classroom, there is lecturing and more individual and group project work and hence, teachers no longer have to provide all the information since, students can gather much of what is needed from the Internet while they can also work more on their own and at their own pace or work in small groups to prepare projects (WikiBooks org., 2006). In addition, as supported by the WikiBooks org., teachers can act as consultants to the students who can offer individualized suggestions and corrections as well as more frequent assessments of individual and group progress.
In a laptop classroom, students “as independent learners, they also have to take on more responsibility for their learning, by working independently they have to monitor their own progress, identify the tools and resources they need to use, and know when to seek help. Developing the ability to learn independently, collaborate with peers to accomplish work, and communicate the conclusions of your work are the core of 21st-century skills, and a highly valued set of competencies in the world outside of school” (WikiBooks org., 2006, ¶4).
A great advantage of laptops is that they promote cooperation among the students. As Cromwell (1999) outlined, cooperation and a sense of community can de developed among the students when they work collaboratively on projects and share information about their laptops. This was also outlined by the results of a study made by Rockman that specifically revealed that the majority of the teachers that participated in the research and made use of laptops in the classroom, reported an increase in cooperative learning and project-based instruction (Belanger, 2001).
An also important advantage of laptops is that they contribute to an improvement of students’ achievement and to an increase in test scores. This was also revealed by the results of the second of a three-year study at Henricho County high school that showed in specific, a noticeable improvement in students’ test scores in the subjects of biology, history, and chemistry (Noel, 2008). Moreover, the results of another study made by Stevenson revealed also that students with laptops demonstrated a sustained level of academic achievement compared to the students who did not make use of laptops while also, the academic benefits were most significant in at-risk student populations (Belanger, 2001). In accordance with these, are the results of a study made by Gulek and Demirtas (2005) that revealed that students who participated in a laptop immersion program tended to earn significantly higher test scores and grades for mathematics, English-language arts, writing and overall Grade Point Averages (GPAs).
The use of laptops in the classroom creates greater interest in and excitement about learning in general. As Cromwell (1999) stated, “Laptops have created … a sense of excitement about learning in general…They’ve created greater interest in research, writing, and projects students work on…The laptops lead to a sense of discovery every day, keeping students more focused and on task” (¶3).
An important advantage of laptops is that they enhance learning for students with disabilities. In particular, laptops provide students with disabilities the opportunity to succeed that may not be otherwise provided while also, laptops provide special education students an additional visual representation of learning material that directly addresses the needs of these students (Gulek & Demirtas, 2005).
Laptops provide also more opportunities for students to develop and acquire important computer skills that will be necessary to them in their future workplace. As Cromwell (1999) reported, many proponents of a laptop for every student think young people need to begin developing and acquiring computer skills in order to be employable when they graduate from high school or college.
According to Jackson (2004), laptops provide also the following general four advantages: (a) speed of implementation and in fact laptops are easy to learn, if you already know how to use a desktop computer; (b) support availability, where technical support, software, and peripherals are readily available with laptops; (c) integration help and in fact educational materials such as lesson plans, mail lists, etc. are easy to locate using laptops; (d) cross-platform capability, where various laptop models are made for PCs and Macs, that ensure a smooth transition from existing technology.
Laptops also contribute to an improvement of students’ writing skills. In particular, the ease of using a word processor along with the ability to go back and modify things that would otherwise not be possible when writing to a paper, helps students learn how to write more coherent and persuasive text (Timmer, 2009). Furthermore, the use of laptops offers students the opportunity to transfer knowledge across disciplines. As Gulek and Demirtas (2005) stated, “This is believed to occur because laptop students are involved in: (1) highly engaged and focused activities spending more time on their work and completing larger projects; (2) frequently apply active learning strategies; (3) interact with each other about their work; (4) problem solve through project-based activities, which usually involve more critical thinking; and (5) regularly find information, make sense of it, and communicate it” (p.6).
Undoubtedly, the use of laptops in the classroom has many advantages and can provide students and teachers with many benefits that can enhance and improve the teaching and learning processes. Laptops can be used in various ways in the classroom in order to enhance and improve learning and some of those ways are next mentioned and discussed. Students can use laptops in class as part of an integrated lesson that can be teacher-directed or student-directed or they can use them at home where their use is totally student-centred (National Centre for Technology in Education, 2007). As stated by the National Centre for Technology in Education “Allocating laptops for student use on a full-time basis can be advantageous for the following reasons: students can explore their preferred learning styles independently; students can collaborate on assignments with peers via email; students can prepare and present homework or project work using multimedia; students can access learning support if educational software programs are made available for home use” (p.2).
Furthermore, teachers can use laptops in all content areas by incorporating blogging, podcasts, quizzes and online textbooks into their instruction and this is something that can improve the teaching and learning methods as well as create a more fun and interactive environment for both teachers and students (Noel, 2008). In addition, as Noel reported, with the use of laptops in the classroom, the amount of paper being used can be greatly diminished.
The 1999 Laptop Learning Challenge sponsored by Toshiba and National Science Teacher’s Association recognized innovative uses of laptops in K-12 science and mathematics education such as: some award-winning ideas that showed students using laptops to facilitate group work, to analyze data immediately during a lab exercise, conduct scientific investigations in the field rather than in the classroom; in writing activities, student projects and presentations; in creating spreadsheets to solve mathematical problems; and creating book reports using presentation software such as PowerPoint or HyperStudio (Belanger, 2001).
On the other hand, the use of laptops in the classroom does not lack of some disadvantages, some of which are next mentioned and discussed. Laptops are too expensive. Many laptops cost $1000 and up and this price is too high for many schools (Jackson, 2004). In addition, “according to a study done by the UCLA Department of Education, software, internet connection, maintenance and training costs must also be considered when budgeting for a laptop program” (Miles, n.d, ¶2). This was also supported by Belanger (2001), who reported specifically that added costs such as hardware and network costs, technical support and faculty training are the greatest obstacles. Moreover, laptops are too expensive to be distributed equitably among children and therefore, their use in just a few classrooms is simply unfair (Cromwell, 1999).
The fact that laptops are too expensive leads to another disadvantage and that is inequities between the students. Students with laptops at home have an unfair advantage over students who do not have laptops at home and this is something that raises concerns about school-system-funded laptops for every student (Cromwell, 1999). In addition to these, the fact that not all students have an Internet connection at home and hence, allowing laptops to be checked out for homework purposes will not be possible if assignments require Internet usage (Miles, n.d). As Belanger (2001) noted, “Laptop programs may worsen technology inequities among students for families who are unable to assume these costs” (¶11).
Furthermore, the use of laptops in the classroom can make students not use their time in class productively or efficiently. For instance, their work can be interspersed with other activities such as checking and writing email, reading news, instant messaging, etc. and consequently, this constant availability of the laptops leads to constraining students’ thinking (Fay, 2006). In addition to these, reliability constitutes another disadvantage of laptops. In particular, during the teaching and learning processes, technical problems may occur and if replacement computers are not available, then valuable time can be wasted (Miles, n.d).
As Jackson (2004) supported, laptops have also the following two disadvantages: (a) mobility, and in fact, laptops are not actually mobile since people cannot walk and work on them; and (b) physical barrier, where the laptop screen can make it difficult for teachers to monitor work and communicate with students. Furthermore, other disadvantages of laptops include the following two as reported by Miles (n.d): (a) security, and in specific, due to the fact that laptops are small and lightweight enough to be hidden in backpacks, there may be thefts if the school does not monitor the laptops strictly or attach a security device to them; and (b) health concerns, since there is growing concern about the safety of the electromagnetic fields emitted from wireless devices used by laptop computers.
Apart from these, another important disadvantage related to the use of laptops in the classroom refers to the teachers’ role as the students’ guardians. In specific, when laptops are used in the classroom, teachers have to become more active guardians over the activities of their students and maybe such tools as remote desktop viewing of students’ laptops as well as old-fashioned walking around the classroom, may keep students in line with using the laptop only for classroom and educational purposes (Manal, n.d).
Relating to the use of laptops in classroom is the use of Wi-Fi. “Wi-Fi is short for Wireless Fidelity and is a particular type of Wireless local area network (WLAN)-i.e., you don’t need to plug your computer into a phone network via a cable. There are many types of WLAN but all of them allow two or more computers to form a network using radio frequency (RF) signals. They allow users to access and share data, applications, internet access or other network resources in the same way as wired (cable) systems” (Snowdon, 2009, p.1).
A Wi-Fi enabled laptop program brings technology to the children and in fact, Wi-Fi can connect the students studying at home to the school’s intranet and its content and instructional software which does not include the internet with inappropriate content for students such as pornography, gambling, etc. (Adrignola, 2009). The option for Wi-Fi connectivity is available for most of the interactive Whiteboards that are increasingly used in schools with educational software in order to cover the curriculum (Peyman & Mann, n.d).
The use of Wi-Fi helps improve the teaching and learning processes and in general it has many advantages, some of which are next mentioned and discussed. Wi-Fi offers flexibility to teachers and students. In specific, teachers can make use of a wireless enabled laptop and can access the wireless network to show students work and educational material, share resources, obtain information from the internet from anywhere within a range of an AP, without being tied to a wired PC (Snowdon, 2009). In addition, as Snowdon supported, Wi-Fi enables for a flexible learning and the accommodation of different learning styles as well as the adaptation of any learning space to suit the type of learning taking place.
An important advantage of Wi-Fi is its low cost. Despite the fact that the initial cost that is necessary for Wireless LAN hardware can be similar to the cost of wired LAN hardware, the installation expenses can be significantly lower (Snowdon, 2009). Moreover, the fact that the cost per subscriber for a Wi-Fi is quite low enables a school district to build its own private access network independent of commercial operators (Adrignola, 2009). Additionally, as Adrignola stated, “Wi-Fi allows local area networks (LANs) to be deployed without cables and wires for client devices, typically reducing the costs of network deployment and expansion…Wireless network adapters are now built into most laptops. The price of chipsets for Wi-Fi continue to drop, making it an economical networking option included in even more devices” (¶16).
Wi-Fi is accessible and adaptable. It provides access to the network from anywhere in the school within range of an access point and this gives users the freedom to use ICT where and when it is needed while also, with Wi-Fi, it is easier and quicker to add or move devices on the network (Snowdon, 2009). In accordance with the advantages of accessibility and adaptability is the advantage of portability and convenience. As Snowdon supported, Wi-Fi allows computer devices to move around the school with the students and this is something that allows for outdoor field work and work in non-classroom spaces such as the library, playground, etc. As Adrignola (2009) outlined, “With Wi-Fi service, students, faculty and staff can conveniently use their Wi-Fi enabled devices anywhere in the school campus during school time” (¶17).
Wi-Fi contributes also to an enhancement and improvement of technology and academic skills. In particular, the longer the students use compute and internet/intranet, the more digital skills they will learn while also, students who spend more time on school’s intranet usually get more information of their subjects and it is most likely that they will find it easier to do their homework and hence, improving of the grade is automatic (Adrignola, 2009).
Moreover, the use of Wi-Fi provides opportunities for students to interact with the teacher, other students as well as with outsiders (Hodgson, 2004). Wi-Fi provides significant advantages for instruction in various content areas such as literacy, numeracy, and writing. For instance, a Wi-Fi enabled laptop loaded with interactive literacy instructional software can greatly enhance instruction and some examples may include English language students who can improve their English vocabulary by making use of sight-sound relationships that are made available via the laptop and software while also, software products offer practice tests that students can use when they are studying for their American Tests (ACT) in order to improve their reading and test taking skills (Adrignola, 2009).
Apart from these, Wi-Fi enabled laptops offer interactive software that can enhance students’ number sense while they also offer math games that enable practice and development of number sense while also, 3-D graphics can help high school students understand physics, biology, and trigonometry (Adrignola, 2009).
Although Wi-Fi has many advantages, it has some disadvantages as well. An important disadvantage of Wi-Fi refers to slower data transfer and specifically, the current data rates of wireless networks indicates that high bandwidth activities are better done on wired networks while also, when the number of devices that make use of the network increase, then the data transfer rate to each device will decrease accordingly (Snowdon, 2009). Another disadvantage of Wi-Fi as Snowdon reported, involves upgrading. As wireless standards change, it may be necessary to upgrade to higher specifications of wireless that could mean replacing wireless equipment while also, security with Wi-Fi is more difficult to guarantee.
According to Snowdon (2009), Wi-Fi has also the following two disadvantages: (a) signal reception, that means that devices will only operate at a limited distance from an access point while also, obstacles between the access point and the user such as walls, trees, glass, etc. can also affect and determine the distance of operation; and (b) configuration, that means that as more people use wireless devices then there is the risk that certain radio frequencies used for wireless will become congested and prone to interference.
As Adrignola (2009) outlined, “Today’s children are digital natives. Today’s adolescence love digital devices: iPhone, iPod Touch, smart phone, and laptop/netbook. With Wi-Fi service on school campus, students with Wi-Fi enabled devices could enjoy surfing on internet during school time. This will most likely to extend their time of practicing technology skills, as well as academic studying” (¶6). Laptops are definitely necessary in the classroom around the world today to help students gain any advantage they can in today’s cutthroat education system (Ryan, n.d). Closing up, with the use of laptops and handheld computers in the classroom, education is becoming more high tech while also, the involvement of Wi-Fi in the classroom helps students with real time streaming and in fact, it can free students from note taking and therefore, it can allow them to concentrate more on the discussion developed in the classroom (Hodgson, 2004).
References
Adrignola (2009) K-12 School Computer Networking/Chapter 31. Retrieved
January 6, 2009, from http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/K-12_School_Computer_Networking/Chapter_31
Belanger, Y. (2001) Laptop Computers in the K-12 Classroom. Retrieved
January 6, 2009, from http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-1/laptop.html
Capraro, E. (n.d) Is the use of Laptops in the Classroom Beneficial or a Distraction? Retrieved January 7, 2009, from http://www.helium.com/debates/180273-emlaptopsem-emclassroomem-embeneficialem-emdistractionem/side_by_side?page=2
Cromwell, S. (1999) Laptops Change Curriculum-and Students. Retrieved
January 6, 2009, from http://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/curr178.shtml
Fay, A.L. (2006) Impact of Laptop Computers on Students’ Academic Lives. Retrieved January 6, 2009, from http://www.cmu.edu/teaching/resources/PublicationsArchives/StudiesWhitepapers/LaptopStudyReport-2006.pdf
Greenfield, E. (1990) Laptops in Education: accessibility is the key. Retrieved
January 8, 2009, from http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=LFKTPv2dQ9SYxvznmQLlm8B4DnzVpWcnvN98mrMzLcyJ4tQGByh2!-635650599!-165273011?docId=5000131090
Gulek, J.C. & Demirtas, H. (2005) Learning with Technology: The Impact of Laptop Use on Student Achievement. The Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment, 3(2). Retrieved January 6, 2009, from http://escholarship.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1052&context=jtla
Hodgson, J. (2004) Wireless-Uses in Education. Retrieved January 6, 2009, from http://wiki.media-culture.org.au/index.php/Wireless_-_Education
Jackson, L. (2004) The 411 on One-to-One Computing. Retrieved
January 6, 2009, from http://www.educationworld.com/a_tech/tech/tech194.shtml
Keystone Tech Team (2005) Desktops vs Laptops in Education. Retrieved
January 5, 2009, from http://www.slideshare.net/barbwit56/desktops-vs
Manal, N. (n.d) Is the use of Laptops in the Classroom Beneficial or a Distraction? Retrieved January 7, 2009, from http://www.helium.com/debates/180273-emlaptopsem-emclassroomem-embeneficialem-emdistractionem/side_by_side?page=4
Miles, S. (n.d) The Disadvantages of Laptops in an Elementary Classroom. Retrieved
January 8, 2009, from http://www.ehow.com/facts_5503182_disadvantages-laptops-elementary-classroom.html
National Centre for Technology in Education (2007) Laptops. Retrieved
January 6, 2009, from http://www.ncte.ie/documents/advicesheets/04LaptopsNov08.pdf
Negroponte, N. (2009) We See the Child as the Agent of Change. Retrieved
January 6, 2009, from http://www.inwent.org/ez/articles/154508/index.en.shtml
Noel (2008) Laptop Use in School is a Definite Benefit. Retrieved
January 6, 2009, from http://www.thegreenergrass.org/2008/07/laptop-use-in-school-is-definite.html
Peyman, A. & Mann, S. (n.d) Wi-Fi in Schools. Retrieved January 7, 2009, from http://www.hpa.org.uk/web/HPAwebFile/HPAweb_C/1254510618866
Ryan, P. (n.d) Is the use of Laptops in the Classroom Beneficial or a Distraction? Retrieved January 7, 2009, from http://www.helium.com/debates/180273-emlaptopsem-emclassroomem-embeneficialem-emdistractionem/side_by_side?page=10
Snowdon, C. (2009) WiFi in Schools-Stockton Borough Council’s Position. Retrieved
January 6, 2009, from http://egenda.stockton.gov.uk/aksstockton/images/att10617.doc
Timmer, J. (2009) In-class laptop use sparks backlash, possibly lower grades. Retrieved January 6, 2009, from http://arstechnica.com/science/news/2009/03/in-class-laptop-use-may-be-sparking-a-backlash.ars
WikiBooks org. (2006) Using Laptops for Education. Retrieved
January 7, 2009, from http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Educational_Technology_Innovation_and_Impact/Multimedia_Courseware/Using_Laptops_for_Education
Media and Society
“In the last 50 years the media influence has grown exponentially with the advance of technology, first there was the telegraph, then the radio, the newspaper, magazines, television and now the Internet” (Rayuso, 2009, ¶1). As Rayuso supported, our society depends largely on information and communication technologies that help people move in the right direction in their work, entertainment, personal relationships, health care, and education. In modern society, media is everywhere, and it is almost impossible to avoid and in fact, Americans spend an average of twenty-eight hours per week watching television while they also spend an undetermined number of hours reading periodicals, listening to the radio, and going to the movies (Elton, 2008). The media effect on society is often debated, whether it is good or bad, overstated or understated, however, the fact is that there is an effect that is becoming more powerful as media becomes more pervasive, more mobile and more global (Mitchell, 2009).
“The media, especially television, socializes and shapes people’s attitudes, values, and beliefs about the world around them. Program content and commercials both strongly influence the way we think about ourselves and others, as well as sex, food, tobacco, and other life concerns. The Internet also strongly influences our behaviour, especially socially. Further, some individuals are addicted to watching television and using the Internet, and as a consequence, they forget about the world and fail to meet responsibilities” (Medoff & Kaye, 2005, p.313). Many people cannot realize the significant impact that the mass media has on all aspects of society whether that is economic, ideological or political due to the fact that the mass media has become such an ordinary and everyday part of society (Elton, 2008). As Elton noted, the mass media influence the way we vote, the things we buy, the way we act as well as the values we hold.
“Mass media are methods of communicating to a vast amount of people around the world. Mass media means things such as Television, Radio, Newspapers, Internet, Magazines etc; they are a means of communication to people. The mass media have a few main functions, which include informing, educating and entertaining us” (Vish, 2008, ¶2). According to Medoff and Kaye (2005), the effects of media on people individually, socially and culturally can be explained through four perspectives which include the strong-effects model, the limited-effects model; the moderate-effects model; and the powerful-effects model. It is the author’s belief and point of view that media has not a limited or moderated effect on society but a powerful effect. “What we need to be aware is that most of our decisions, beliefs and values are based on what we know for a fact, our assumptions and our own experience. In our work we usually know what we have to do based on our experience and studies; however, on our daily lives we rely on the media to get the current news and facts about what is important and what we should be aware of” (Rayuso, 2009, ¶4).
Television and other media can have positive and negative effects as well but it seems that most of the attention is focused on the negative effects and there is much debate about the degree to which the media influence our attitudes, behaviours, and values (Medoff & Kaye, 2005). As Mitchell (2009) noted, “as the technology powers and empowers the delivery of the media effect in ways not possible before, there are both good and bad outcomes” (¶16). People have trusted the media as an authority to give them news, entertainment and education but however, the influence of mass media on society is so big that people should be aware of how it really works (Rayuso, 2009). The media has a significant impact on society and in public opinion as well and in fact, the media can shape the public opinion in various ways depending of what is the objective (Rayuso, 2009). As Rayuso noted, “Of all the media distribution channels the most influential has been the television, we are constantly exposed to thousands of images of violence, advertising, sex, celebrities and much more, in fact it is known that a child is exposed to about 40,000 ads a year” (¶6). Additionally, the rise of new media such as video games and the Internet has introduced new ways children can be exposed to violence (Anderson, Berkowitz, Donnerstein, Huesmann, Johnson, Linz, Malamuth & Wartella, 2003).
It is the author’s belief and point of view that media has a powerful effect on society. Despite the fact that various kinds of media such as television, radio, advertising and the Internet provide many benefits, they can also have a powerful negative effect on society and people’s lives, especially on children’s lives. For instance, the Internet is blamed for exposing children to unsavoury material and in fact, when children tend to make an extensive use of the Internet, they can be led to social isolation (Medoff & Kaye, 2005). Music videos and music lyrics can also have a powerful effect on society and mostly on children’s lives. “Music videos are also of concern because these videos are sometimes replete with violence. Even those that do not have explicit aggressive content often have antisocial overtones” (Anderson et al., 2003, p.9). In addition, as Anderson et al. supported, watching violent music videos creates attitudes and beliefs that are relatively accepting of violence in young viewers. Furthermore, radio stations get heat for playing songs with racy, violent, and antisocial lyrics and this is an issue of concern because children will do whatever these songs suggest (Medoff & Kaye, 2005).
Advertising constitutes also an important means of media that has a powerful effect on society and that can significantly impact and influence people’s attitudes and beliefs. As Rayuso (2009) stated, “The media makes billions of dollars with the advertising they sell and that we are exposed to. We buy what we are told to be good, after seeing thousands of advertisings we make our buying decisions based on what we saw on TV, newspapers or magazines to be a product we can trust and also based on what everyone else that we know is buying and their decision are also based on the media”(¶11). Apart from these, teenagers are influenced and consequently buy what their favourite celebrity advertise and what is acceptable by society based on fashion that the media has imposed them (Rayuso, 2009). In addition, “According to the Journal of Advertising, studies show that America’s obsession with physical beauty is strongly created and reinforced by advertising” (Fihn, n.d, ¶3).
Comparing the various kinds of media it can be denoted that television constitutes the one that has the most powerful effect on society and can greatly influence people’s opinions, attitudes, behaviour, and beliefs. When we watch TV we usually see many images of violence and people hurting others and this is something that can become traumatic especially in children who are starting to grow and are shaping their personality values and beliefs and hence, this can result in making them become aggressive or losing the sense of reality and fiction (Rayuso, 2009). As Medoff and Kaye (2005) noted, “Television content is blamed for many social ills, such as violent behaviour, increased crime rated, a lower literacy level, and the breakdown of the family” (p.291).
Psychologists have proven that the minds of children develop cognitively and when they are young, they are not in a position to understand things such as violence on television and therefore, violence on television give children the sense that violence is a part of ordinary life, thus reducing their ability not to be violent (Fihn, n.d). Additionally, it is worth mentioning the results of a research conducted in 1969 by the U.S. Surgeon General’s Scientific Advisory Committee on Television and Social Behaviour regarding the influence of television on children’s behaviour, that revealed that there was a strong link between viewing violence on television and performing antisocial behaviour and in fact, the link was not limited only to children who were predisposed to aggressive behaviour (Medoff & Kaye, 2005).
Also, the results of another study revealed that the majority of programs on television include violence and this is something that can greatly influence people’s behaviour and attitudes. In specific, “according to the national Television Violence study (NTVS), which, during the period of three years, investigated ten thousand hours of violent programs, discovered that about 60% of all TV programs have violent content. And only fifteen percent of these programs revealed the long-term effects of the violence they depicted. Forty percent of them even ended with the criminals going completely free without being punished” (Fihn, n.d, ¶2).
Additionally, in the 1980, many violence studies indicated that viewing violence is strongly related to aggressive behaviour and in fact, viewing media violence may affect people behaviourally, cognitively, and emotionally since viewers and mostly children, may imitate aggressive behaviours, identify with unsavoury characters and may become desensitized to violence in real life (Medoff & Kaye, 2005). Moreover, as Medoff and Kaye noted, “Repeated exposure to mediated violence breaks down social barriers and may influence antisocial behaviours” (p.313).
As research has revealed, a significant proportion of aggressive children are likely to grow up to be aggressive adults and in fact, the best single predictor of violent behaviour in older adolescents and young adults is aggressive behaviour when they were younger (Anderson et al., 2003). As Anderson et al., “Thus influences that promote aggressive behaviour in young children can contribute to increasingly aggressive and ultimately violent behaviour many years later” (p.3).
Undoubtedly, media has a powerful effect on society and this is a fact that the author strongly supports. If we take a look at every aspect in every field of society, we will see and realize various examples that indicate the powerful effect that media have on society. For instance, ways that media influence people are with polls and trends, especially in political campaigns, where candidates that can pay for more TV and media exposure have more influence on public opinion and hence, they can receive more votes (Rayuso, 2009). Also the media effect was one of the biggest factors in the recent US presidential elections and in fact, rampant sexism in old media hurt Hillary’s campaign and a newly engaged media constituency helped put Obama in the White House (Mitchell, 2009).
The 2008 Presidential election is a representative example of the powerful effect that media has on society. Particularly, “The mass media decided to give the most coverage to candidates who stand for preserving the status quo, while writing off candidates who challenge the status quo (such as Ron Paul, Dennis Kucinich, and Mike Gravel) as long-shots –even if polls, straw polls, primaries, and the breaking of world records say otherwise” (Elton, 2008, p.2).
According to Martin N. Marger, “the media are closely interwoven with government, particularly at the national level. Put simply, the relationship between government and media is symbiotic, neither can function effectively without the other […] Moreover, much of the news transmitted by the mass media is prepared by government agencies” (Elton, 2008, p.2).
The media has also a powerful effect in public opinion. For instance, after the attacks of 911 the media gave a huge coverage of the event and exposed Osama guilty for the attack as they were told by the authorities and this was something that shaped the public opinion to support the war on terrorism as it happened with the war on Iraq (Rayuso, 2009). Another example of the powerful effect of the media on society is the use of cigars by celebrity movies stars, the constant exposure of sex images, the exposure to thousands of junk food ads as well as the excessive images of violence (Rayuso, 2009).
“Media also affects the way Americans view their own appearance, what with super thin models and other beautiful people on TV, on magazines, and in advertisements, giving Americans something new to be insecure about” (Fihn, n.d, ¶3). Many women want to look like the super models and thin celebrities so they become obsessive with losing weight even they are not obese and hence, they engage in eating disorders such as anorexia that may lead to severe health problems and even death (Rayuso, 2009). But not only kinds of eating disorders such as anorexia are influenced by the media but also obesity. As Rayuso noted, “There are millions of adolescents fighting obesity, but at the same time they are exposed to thousands of advertisements of junk food, while the ideas image of a successful person is to be thin and wealthy” (¶17).
As Elton (2008) outlined, “The influence of mass media on society extends far beyond politics. The media doesn’t just influence who we vote for, but also what we entertain ourselves with, what we buy, and what we believe. Most people have been affected by the mass media since childhood. It starts with children’s movies which serve a primary purpose of corporate marketing, and a secondary purpose of entertainment” (p.2).
Closing up, “Some worry that our fascination with television and the Internet is turning us into media junkies, who live in darkened rooms, transfixed to our screens. These concerns will not likely be settled in the near future and, in fact, are more likely to grow as television screens get larger and more involving and our dependence on computers and the Internet deepens” (Medoff & Kaye, 2005, p.313).
Undoubtedly, as Medoff and Kaye (2005) supported, the media has a powerful effect on society but it can be denoted that not all people respond to the same message in the same way and in fact, the circumstances must be right in order for certain effects to occur and for instance, some viewers may be influenced and may become more aggressive than others under some circumstances
References
Anderson, C.A., Berkowitz, L., Donnerstein, E., Huesmann, L.R., Johnson, J.D., Linz, D., Malamuth, N.M.,Wartella, E. (2003) The Influence of Media Violence on Youth. Retrieved December 10, 2009, from http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi43.pdf
Elton, M. (2008) The Effects of Mass Media on Society. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from http://www.scribd.com/doc/22036108/The-Effects-of-Mass-Media-on-Society
Fihn, J. (n.d) The Effects of Media on American Society. Retrieved December 8, 2009,
from http://www.helium.com/items/464058-the-effects-of-media-on-american-society
Medoff, N. & Kaye, B. (2005) Electronic media: Then, now, and later. Pearson
Education, Inc.
Mitchell, P. (2009) The Media Effect: Pat Mitchell’s Remarks at TED. Retrieved December 8, 2009, from http://www.paleycenter.org/the-media-effect-pat-mitchell-remarks-at-ted
Rayuso (2009) Mass Media Influence on Society. Retrieved December 9, 2009,
from http://hubpages.com/hub/Mass-Media-Influence-on-Society
Vish, F. (2008) Mass Media. Retrieved December 9, 2009, from http://www.allfreeessays.com/essays/Mass-Media/2939.html
“The media, especially television, socializes and shapes people’s attitudes, values, and beliefs about the world around them. Program content and commercials both strongly influence the way we think about ourselves and others, as well as sex, food, tobacco, and other life concerns. The Internet also strongly influences our behaviour, especially socially. Further, some individuals are addicted to watching television and using the Internet, and as a consequence, they forget about the world and fail to meet responsibilities” (Medoff & Kaye, 2005, p.313). Many people cannot realize the significant impact that the mass media has on all aspects of society whether that is economic, ideological or political due to the fact that the mass media has become such an ordinary and everyday part of society (Elton, 2008). As Elton noted, the mass media influence the way we vote, the things we buy, the way we act as well as the values we hold.
“Mass media are methods of communicating to a vast amount of people around the world. Mass media means things such as Television, Radio, Newspapers, Internet, Magazines etc; they are a means of communication to people. The mass media have a few main functions, which include informing, educating and entertaining us” (Vish, 2008, ¶2). According to Medoff and Kaye (2005), the effects of media on people individually, socially and culturally can be explained through four perspectives which include the strong-effects model, the limited-effects model; the moderate-effects model; and the powerful-effects model. It is the author’s belief and point of view that media has not a limited or moderated effect on society but a powerful effect. “What we need to be aware is that most of our decisions, beliefs and values are based on what we know for a fact, our assumptions and our own experience. In our work we usually know what we have to do based on our experience and studies; however, on our daily lives we rely on the media to get the current news and facts about what is important and what we should be aware of” (Rayuso, 2009, ¶4).
Television and other media can have positive and negative effects as well but it seems that most of the attention is focused on the negative effects and there is much debate about the degree to which the media influence our attitudes, behaviours, and values (Medoff & Kaye, 2005). As Mitchell (2009) noted, “as the technology powers and empowers the delivery of the media effect in ways not possible before, there are both good and bad outcomes” (¶16). People have trusted the media as an authority to give them news, entertainment and education but however, the influence of mass media on society is so big that people should be aware of how it really works (Rayuso, 2009). The media has a significant impact on society and in public opinion as well and in fact, the media can shape the public opinion in various ways depending of what is the objective (Rayuso, 2009). As Rayuso noted, “Of all the media distribution channels the most influential has been the television, we are constantly exposed to thousands of images of violence, advertising, sex, celebrities and much more, in fact it is known that a child is exposed to about 40,000 ads a year” (¶6). Additionally, the rise of new media such as video games and the Internet has introduced new ways children can be exposed to violence (Anderson, Berkowitz, Donnerstein, Huesmann, Johnson, Linz, Malamuth & Wartella, 2003).
It is the author’s belief and point of view that media has a powerful effect on society. Despite the fact that various kinds of media such as television, radio, advertising and the Internet provide many benefits, they can also have a powerful negative effect on society and people’s lives, especially on children’s lives. For instance, the Internet is blamed for exposing children to unsavoury material and in fact, when children tend to make an extensive use of the Internet, they can be led to social isolation (Medoff & Kaye, 2005). Music videos and music lyrics can also have a powerful effect on society and mostly on children’s lives. “Music videos are also of concern because these videos are sometimes replete with violence. Even those that do not have explicit aggressive content often have antisocial overtones” (Anderson et al., 2003, p.9). In addition, as Anderson et al. supported, watching violent music videos creates attitudes and beliefs that are relatively accepting of violence in young viewers. Furthermore, radio stations get heat for playing songs with racy, violent, and antisocial lyrics and this is an issue of concern because children will do whatever these songs suggest (Medoff & Kaye, 2005).
Advertising constitutes also an important means of media that has a powerful effect on society and that can significantly impact and influence people’s attitudes and beliefs. As Rayuso (2009) stated, “The media makes billions of dollars with the advertising they sell and that we are exposed to. We buy what we are told to be good, after seeing thousands of advertisings we make our buying decisions based on what we saw on TV, newspapers or magazines to be a product we can trust and also based on what everyone else that we know is buying and their decision are also based on the media”(¶11). Apart from these, teenagers are influenced and consequently buy what their favourite celebrity advertise and what is acceptable by society based on fashion that the media has imposed them (Rayuso, 2009). In addition, “According to the Journal of Advertising, studies show that America’s obsession with physical beauty is strongly created and reinforced by advertising” (Fihn, n.d, ¶3).
Comparing the various kinds of media it can be denoted that television constitutes the one that has the most powerful effect on society and can greatly influence people’s opinions, attitudes, behaviour, and beliefs. When we watch TV we usually see many images of violence and people hurting others and this is something that can become traumatic especially in children who are starting to grow and are shaping their personality values and beliefs and hence, this can result in making them become aggressive or losing the sense of reality and fiction (Rayuso, 2009). As Medoff and Kaye (2005) noted, “Television content is blamed for many social ills, such as violent behaviour, increased crime rated, a lower literacy level, and the breakdown of the family” (p.291).
Psychologists have proven that the minds of children develop cognitively and when they are young, they are not in a position to understand things such as violence on television and therefore, violence on television give children the sense that violence is a part of ordinary life, thus reducing their ability not to be violent (Fihn, n.d). Additionally, it is worth mentioning the results of a research conducted in 1969 by the U.S. Surgeon General’s Scientific Advisory Committee on Television and Social Behaviour regarding the influence of television on children’s behaviour, that revealed that there was a strong link between viewing violence on television and performing antisocial behaviour and in fact, the link was not limited only to children who were predisposed to aggressive behaviour (Medoff & Kaye, 2005).
Also, the results of another study revealed that the majority of programs on television include violence and this is something that can greatly influence people’s behaviour and attitudes. In specific, “according to the national Television Violence study (NTVS), which, during the period of three years, investigated ten thousand hours of violent programs, discovered that about 60% of all TV programs have violent content. And only fifteen percent of these programs revealed the long-term effects of the violence they depicted. Forty percent of them even ended with the criminals going completely free without being punished” (Fihn, n.d, ¶2).
Additionally, in the 1980, many violence studies indicated that viewing violence is strongly related to aggressive behaviour and in fact, viewing media violence may affect people behaviourally, cognitively, and emotionally since viewers and mostly children, may imitate aggressive behaviours, identify with unsavoury characters and may become desensitized to violence in real life (Medoff & Kaye, 2005). Moreover, as Medoff and Kaye noted, “Repeated exposure to mediated violence breaks down social barriers and may influence antisocial behaviours” (p.313).
As research has revealed, a significant proportion of aggressive children are likely to grow up to be aggressive adults and in fact, the best single predictor of violent behaviour in older adolescents and young adults is aggressive behaviour when they were younger (Anderson et al., 2003). As Anderson et al., “Thus influences that promote aggressive behaviour in young children can contribute to increasingly aggressive and ultimately violent behaviour many years later” (p.3).
Undoubtedly, media has a powerful effect on society and this is a fact that the author strongly supports. If we take a look at every aspect in every field of society, we will see and realize various examples that indicate the powerful effect that media have on society. For instance, ways that media influence people are with polls and trends, especially in political campaigns, where candidates that can pay for more TV and media exposure have more influence on public opinion and hence, they can receive more votes (Rayuso, 2009). Also the media effect was one of the biggest factors in the recent US presidential elections and in fact, rampant sexism in old media hurt Hillary’s campaign and a newly engaged media constituency helped put Obama in the White House (Mitchell, 2009).
The 2008 Presidential election is a representative example of the powerful effect that media has on society. Particularly, “The mass media decided to give the most coverage to candidates who stand for preserving the status quo, while writing off candidates who challenge the status quo (such as Ron Paul, Dennis Kucinich, and Mike Gravel) as long-shots –even if polls, straw polls, primaries, and the breaking of world records say otherwise” (Elton, 2008, p.2).
According to Martin N. Marger, “the media are closely interwoven with government, particularly at the national level. Put simply, the relationship between government and media is symbiotic, neither can function effectively without the other […] Moreover, much of the news transmitted by the mass media is prepared by government agencies” (Elton, 2008, p.2).
The media has also a powerful effect in public opinion. For instance, after the attacks of 911 the media gave a huge coverage of the event and exposed Osama guilty for the attack as they were told by the authorities and this was something that shaped the public opinion to support the war on terrorism as it happened with the war on Iraq (Rayuso, 2009). Another example of the powerful effect of the media on society is the use of cigars by celebrity movies stars, the constant exposure of sex images, the exposure to thousands of junk food ads as well as the excessive images of violence (Rayuso, 2009).
“Media also affects the way Americans view their own appearance, what with super thin models and other beautiful people on TV, on magazines, and in advertisements, giving Americans something new to be insecure about” (Fihn, n.d, ¶3). Many women want to look like the super models and thin celebrities so they become obsessive with losing weight even they are not obese and hence, they engage in eating disorders such as anorexia that may lead to severe health problems and even death (Rayuso, 2009). But not only kinds of eating disorders such as anorexia are influenced by the media but also obesity. As Rayuso noted, “There are millions of adolescents fighting obesity, but at the same time they are exposed to thousands of advertisements of junk food, while the ideas image of a successful person is to be thin and wealthy” (¶17).
As Elton (2008) outlined, “The influence of mass media on society extends far beyond politics. The media doesn’t just influence who we vote for, but also what we entertain ourselves with, what we buy, and what we believe. Most people have been affected by the mass media since childhood. It starts with children’s movies which serve a primary purpose of corporate marketing, and a secondary purpose of entertainment” (p.2).
Closing up, “Some worry that our fascination with television and the Internet is turning us into media junkies, who live in darkened rooms, transfixed to our screens. These concerns will not likely be settled in the near future and, in fact, are more likely to grow as television screens get larger and more involving and our dependence on computers and the Internet deepens” (Medoff & Kaye, 2005, p.313).
Undoubtedly, as Medoff and Kaye (2005) supported, the media has a powerful effect on society but it can be denoted that not all people respond to the same message in the same way and in fact, the circumstances must be right in order for certain effects to occur and for instance, some viewers may be influenced and may become more aggressive than others under some circumstances
References
Anderson, C.A., Berkowitz, L., Donnerstein, E., Huesmann, L.R., Johnson, J.D., Linz, D., Malamuth, N.M.,Wartella, E. (2003) The Influence of Media Violence on Youth. Retrieved December 10, 2009, from http://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/pspi/pspi43.pdf
Elton, M. (2008) The Effects of Mass Media on Society. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from http://www.scribd.com/doc/22036108/The-Effects-of-Mass-Media-on-Society
Fihn, J. (n.d) The Effects of Media on American Society. Retrieved December 8, 2009,
from http://www.helium.com/items/464058-the-effects-of-media-on-american-society
Medoff, N. & Kaye, B. (2005) Electronic media: Then, now, and later. Pearson
Education, Inc.
Mitchell, P. (2009) The Media Effect: Pat Mitchell’s Remarks at TED. Retrieved December 8, 2009, from http://www.paleycenter.org/the-media-effect-pat-mitchell-remarks-at-ted
Rayuso (2009) Mass Media Influence on Society. Retrieved December 9, 2009,
from http://hubpages.com/hub/Mass-Media-Influence-on-Society
Vish, F. (2008) Mass Media. Retrieved December 9, 2009, from http://www.allfreeessays.com/essays/Mass-Media/2939.html
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